Chapter 3 - Structured Program

Development
Outline
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10

3.11
3.12

Introduction
Algorithms
Pseudocode
Control Structures
The If Selection Structure
The If/Else Selection Structure
The While Repetition Structure
Formulating Algorithms: Case Study 1 (Counter-Controlled
Repetition)
Formulating Algorithms with Top-down, Stepwise Refinement:
Case Study 2 (Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
Formulating Algorithms with Top-down, Stepwise Refinement:
Case Study 3 (Nested Control Structures)
Assignment Operators
Increment and Decrement Operators

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3.1

Introduction

Before writing a program:

Have a thorough understanding of the problem
Carefully plan an approach for solving it

While writing a program:

Know what building blocks are available

Use good programming principles

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3.2

Algorithms

Computing problems
All can be solved by executing a series of actions in a
specific order

Algorithm: procedure in terms of

Actions to be executed
The order in which these actions are to be executed

Program control

Specify order in which statements are to executed

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3.3

Pseudocode

Pseudocode
Artificial, informal language that helps us develop
algorithms
Similar to everyday English
Not actually executed on computers
Helps us think out a program before writing it

Easy to convert into a corresponding C++ program

Consists only of executable statements

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3.4

Control Structures

Sequential execution
Statements executed one after the other in the order written

Transfer of control
When the next statement executed is not the next one in
sequence
Overuse of goto statements led to many problems

Bohm and Jacopini

All programs written in terms of 3 control structures

Sequence structures: Built into C. Programs executed

sequentially by default
Selection structures: C has three types: if, if/else, and
switch
Repetition structures: C has three types: while, do/while
and for
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3.4

Control Structures

Flowchart
Graphical representation of an algorithm
Drawn using certain special-purpose symbols connected by
arrows called flowlines
Rectangle symbol (action symbol):
Indicates any type of action

Oval symbol:
Indicates the beginning or end of a program or a section of code

Single-entry/single-exit control structures

Connect exit point of one control structure to entry point of

the next (control-structure stacking)
Makes programs easy to build

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3.5

The if Selection Structure

Selection structure:
Used to choose among alternative courses of action
Pseudocode:
If students grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print Passed

If condition true
Print statement executed and program goes on to next
statement
If false, print statement is ignored and the program goes
onto the next statement
Indenting makes programs easier to read

C ignores whitespace characters

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3.5

The if Selection Structure

Pseudocode statement in C:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed\n" );

C code corresponds closely to the pseudocode

Diamond symbol (decision symbol)

Indicates decision is to be made

Contains an expression that can be true or false
Test the condition, follow appropriate path

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3.5

The if Selection Structure

if structure is a single-entry/single-exit structure

A decision can be made on

any expression.
grade >= 60

true

print Passed

zero - false
nonzero - true
Example:

false

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3 - 4 is true

3.6

The if/else Selection Structure

if
Only performs an action if the condition is true

if/else
Specifies an action to be performed both when the condition
is true and when it is false

Psuedocode:
If students grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print Passed
else
Print Failed

Note spacing/indentation conventions

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3.6

The if/else Selection Structure

C code:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed\n");
else
printf( "Failed\n");

Ternary conditional operator (?:)

Takes three arguments (condition, value if true, value if
false)
Our pseudocode could be written:
printf( "%s\n", grade >= 60 ? "Passed" :
"Failed" );

Or it could have been written:

grade >= 60 ? printf( Passed\n ) :

printf( Failed\n );
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3.6

The if/else Selection Structure

Flow chart of the if/else selection structure

false

grade >= 60

print Failed

true
print Passed

Nested if/else structures

Test for multiple cases by placing if/else selection

structures inside if/else selection structures
Once condition is met, rest of statements skipped
Deep indentation usually not used in practice
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3.6

The if/else Selection Structure

Pseudocode for a nested if/else structure

If students grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print A
else
If students grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print B
else
If students grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print C
else
If students grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print D
else
Print F

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3.6

The if/else Selection Structure

Compound statement:
Set of statements within a pair of braces
Example:
if ( grade >= 60 )
printf( "Passed.\n" );
else {
printf( "Failed.\n" );
printf( "You must take this course
again.\n" );
}

Without the braces, the statement

printf( "You must take this course

again.\n" );
would be executed automatically
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3.6

The if/else Selection Structure

Block:
Compound statements with declarations

Syntax errors
Caught by compiler

Logic errors:

Have their effect at execution time

Non-fatal: program runs, but has incorrect output
Fatal: program exits prematurely

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3.7

The while Repetition Structure

Repetition structure
Programmer specifies an action to be repeated while some
condition remains true
Psuedocode:
While there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list

while loop repeated until condition becomes false

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3.7

The while Repetition Structure

Example:
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;

product <= 1000

false

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true

product = 2 * product

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3.8 Formulating Algorithms

(Counter-Controlled Repetition)
Counter-controlled repetition
Loop repeated until counter reaches a certain value
Definite repetition: number of repetitions is known
Example: A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades
(integers in the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to
you. Determine the class average on the quiz
Pseudocode:

Set total to zero

Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average
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/* Fig. 3.6: fig03_06.c

Class average program with

counter-controlled repetition */

Outline

#include <stdio.h>

1. Initialize Variables

int main()

2. Execute Loop

4
5

int counter, grade, total, average;

9
10

/* initialization phase */

11

total = 0;

12

counter = 1;

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14

/* processing phase */

15

while ( counter <= 10 ) {

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printf( "Enter grade: " );

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scanf( "%d", &grade );

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total = total + grade;

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counter = counter + 1;

20

21
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/* termination phase */

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average = total / 10;

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printf( "Class average is %d\n", average );

25
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return 0;

/* indicate program ended successfully */

27 }

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3. Output results

19

Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Class

grade: 98
grade: 76
grade: 71
grade: 87
grade: 83
grade: 90
grade: 57
grade: 79
grade: 82
grade: 94
average is 81

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Outline
Program Output

20

3.9

Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down,

Stepwise Refinement
Problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run.
Unknown number of students
How will the program know to end?

Use sentinel value

Also called signal value, dummy value, or flag value

Indicates end of data entry.
Loop ends when user inputs the sentinel value
Sentinel value chosen so it cannot be confused with a regular
input (such as -1 in this case)

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21

3.9

Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down,

Stepwise Refinement
Top-down, stepwise refinement
Begin with a pseudocode representation of the top:
Determine the class average for the quiz

Divide top into smaller tasks and list them in order:

Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average

Many programs have three phases:

Initialization: initializes the program variables

Processing: inputs data values and adjusts program variables
accordingly
Termination: calculates and prints the final results

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3.9

Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down,

Stepwise Refinement
Refine the initialization phase from Initialize
variables to:
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero

Refine Input, sum and count the quiz grades to

Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)

While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)

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3.9

Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down,

Stepwise Refinement
Refine Calculate and print the class average to

If the counter is not equal to zero

Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
else
Print No grades were entered

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/* Fig. 3.8: fig03_08.c

Outline

Class average program with

sentinel-controlled repetition */
#include <stdio.h>

1. Initialize Variables

int main()

2. Get user input

4
5

float average;

int counter, grade, total;

/* new data type */

10
11

/* initialization phase */

12

total = 0;

13

counter = 0;

14
15

/* processing phase */

16

printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " );

17

scanf( "%d", &grade );

18
19

while ( grade != -1 ) {

20

total = total + grade;

21

counter = counter + 1;

22

printf( "Enter grade, -1 to end: " );

23

scanf( "%d", &grade );

24

}
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2.1 Perform Loop

25

25
26

/* termination phase */

27

if ( counter != 0 ) {

28

average = ( float ) total / counter;

29

printf( "Class average is %.2f", average );

30

31

else

32

Outline

3. Calculate Average
3.1 Print Results

printf( "No grades were entered\n" );

33
34

return 0;

/* indicate program ended successfully */

35 }

Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter
Class

grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
grade, -1 to end:
average is 82.50

75
94
97
88
70
64
83
89
-1

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Program Output

3.10 Nested control structures

Problem
A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students
Write a program that analyzes the results
If more than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition"

Notice that
The program must process 10 test results
Counter-controlled loop will be used

Two counters can be used

One for number of passes, one for number of fails

Each test result is a numbereither a 1 or a 2

If the number is not a 1, we assume that it is a 2

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3.10 Nested control structures

Top level outline
Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised

First Refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should
be raised

Refine Initialize variables to

Initialize passes to zero

Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to one

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28

3.10 Nested control structures

Refine Input the ten quiz grades and count passes
and failures to
While student counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter

Refine Print a summary of the exam results and

decide if tuition should be raised to

Print the number of passes

Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print Raise tuition
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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12
13
14
15
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22
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/* Fig. 3.10: fig03_10.c

Analysis of examination results */
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
/* initializing variables in declarations */
int passes = 0, failures = 0, student = 1, result;
/* process 10 students; counter-controlled loop */
while ( student <= 10 ) {
printf( "Enter result ( 1=pass,2=fail ): " );
scanf( "%d", &result );
if ( result == 1 )
/* if/else nested in while */
passes = passes + 1;
else
failures = failures + 1;
student = student + 1;
}
printf( "Passed %d\n", passes );
printf( "Failed %d\n", failures );
if ( passes > 8 )
printf( "Raise tuition\n" );

return 0;
}

/* successful termination */

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Outline
1. Initialize variables
2. Input data and
count passes/failures
3. Print results

30

Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Enter Result
Passed 6
Failed 4

(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):
(1=pass,2=fail):

1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2

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Outline
Program Output

31

3.11 Assignment Operators

Assignment operators abbreviate assignment
expressions
c = c + 3;

can be abbreviated as c += 3; using the addition assignment

operator

Statements of the form

variable = variable operator expression;

can be rewritten as
variable operator= expression;

Examples of other assignment operators:

d
e
f
g

-=
*=
/=
%=

4
5
3
9

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(d
(e
(f
(g

=
=
=
=

d
e
f
g

*
/
%

4)
5)
3)
9)

32

3.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment operator (++)
Can be used instead of c+=1

Decrement operator (--)

Can be used instead of c-=1

Preincrement
Operator is used before the variable (++c or --c)
Variable is changed before the expression it is in is evaluated

Postincrement

Operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)

Expression executes before the variable is changed

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33

3.12 Increment and Decrement Operators

If c equals 5, then
printf( "%d", ++c );

Prints 6
printf( "%d", c++ );

Prints 5
In either case, c now has the value of 6

When variable not in an expression

Preincrementing and postincrementing have the same effect
++c;
printf( %d, c );

Has the same effect as

c++;
printf( %d, c );
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34