What is Scientific Notation?

Scientific notation is a way of

expressing really big numbers or
really small numbers.
It is most often used in scientific
calculations where the analysis must
be very precise.
For very large and very small
numbers, scientific notation is more
concise.

Scientific notation consists of

two parts:
A number between 1 and 10
A power of 10

N x 10x
Are the following in scientific notation?

To change standard form to

scientific notation
Place the decimal point so that there is one
non-zero digit to the left of the decimal point.
Count the number of decimal places the
decimal point has moved from the original
number. This will be the exponent on the 10.
If the original number was less than 1, then
the exponent is negative. If the original
number was greater than 1, then the
exponent is positive.

Examples

Given: 289,800,000
Use: 2.898 (moved 8 places)
Answer: 2.898 x 108

Given: 0.000567
Use: 5.67 (moved 4 places)
Answer: 5.67 x 10-4

To change scientific notation

to standard form
Simply move the decimal point to
the right for positive exponent 10.
Move the decimal point to the left
for negative exponent 10.
(Use zeros to fill in places.)

Example
Given: 5.093 x 106
Answer: 5,093,000 (moved 6 places
to the right)
Given: 1.976 x 10-4
Answer: 0.0001976 (moved 4 places
to the left)

Learning Check
Express these numbers in Scientific
Notation:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

405789
0.003872
3000000000
2
0.478260

Can you hit the bull's-eye?

Three targets
with three
arrows each to
shoot.

How do
they
compare?

Both
accurate
and precise

Precise
but not
accurate

Neither
accurate
nor precise

Can you define accuracy and precision?

Significant Figures

The numbers reported in a

measurement are limited by the
measuring tool

Significant figures in a
measurement include the known
digits plus one estimated digit

Counting Significant Figures

RULE 1. All non-zero digits in a measured number are
significant. Only a zero could indicate that rounding
occurred.
Number of Significant Figures

38.15 cm
5.6 ft
65.6 lb
122.55 m

4
2
___
___

Leading Zeros
RULE 2. Leading zeros in decimal numbers are
NOT significant.
Number of Significant Figures

0.008 mm

0.0156 oz

0.0042 lb

____

0.000262 mL

____

Sandwiched Zeros
RULE 3. Zeros between nonzero numbers are significant.
(They can not be rounded unless they are on an end of a
number.)
Number of Significant Figures

50.8 mm

2001 min

0.702 lb

____

0.00405 m

____

Trailing Zeros
RULE 4. Trailing zeros in numbers without decimals are
NOT significant. They are only serving as place holders.

Number of Significant Figures

25,000 in.

200. yr

48,600 gal

____

25,005,000 g

____

O.245050 mole

____

Learning Check
A. Which answers contain 3 significant figures?

1) 0.4760

2) 0.00476

3) 4760

B. All the zeros are significant in

1) 0.00307

2) 25.300 3) 2.050 x 103

C. 534,675 rounded to 3 significant figures is

1) 535

2) 535,000

3) 5.35 x 105

Learning Check
In which set(s) do both numbers contain the same
number of significant figures?
1) 22.0 and 22.00

2) 400.0 and 40
3) 0.000015 and 150,000

Learning Check
State the number of significant figures in each of
the following:
A. 0.030 m
1
2
3
B. 4.050 L

C. 0.0008 g

D. 3.00 m

E. 2,080,000 bees

Significant Numbers in
Calculations
A calculated answer cannot be more precise
than the measuring tool.
A calculated answer must match the least
precise measurement.
Significant figures are needed for final
answers from
1) adding or subtracting
2) multiplying or dividing

Adding and Subtracting

The answer has the same number of decimal
places as the measurement with the fewest
decimal places.
25.2
one decimal place
+ 1.34 two decimal places
26.54
answer 26.5 one decimal place

Learning Check
In each calculation, round the answer to the correct
number of significant figures.
A. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2.1 =
1) 256.75
2) 256.8
3) 257
B.

58.925 - 18.2
=
1) 40.725
2) 40.73

3) 40.7

Multiplying and Dividing

Round (or add zeros) to the calculated

answer until you have the same
number of significant figures as the
measurement with the fewest
significant figures.

Learning Check
A. 2.19 X 4.2 =
1) 9
B.
C.

4.311 0.07 =
1) 61.58

2) 9.2

3) 9.198

2) 62

2.54 X 0.0028 =
0.0105 X 0.060
1) 11.3
2) 11

3) 60

3) 0.041

Reading a Meterstick
. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. .
First digit (known)

=2

Second digit (known) = 0.7

2.?? cm
2.7? cm

Third digit (estimated) between 0.05- 0.07

Length reported

2.76 cm

or

2.77 cm

or

2.78 cm

cm

Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.76 cm
Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain
The third digit 6 is estimated (uncertain)
In the reported length, all three digits
(2.76 cm) are significant including the
estimated one

Learning Check
. l8. . . . I . . . . I9. . . . I . . . . I10. .

cm

What is the length of the line?

1) 9.61 cm
2) 9.62 cm
3) 9.63 cm
How does your answer compare with your
neighbors answer? Why or why not?

Zero as a Measured Number

. l3. . . . I . . . . I 4 . . . . I . . . . I 5. .
What is the length of the line?
First digit
5.?? cm
Second digit
5.0? cm
Last (estimated) digit is 5.00 cm

cm

Significant Figures
Definition: Minimum # of digits needed to express a
number in scientific notation without a loss of accuracy
Example: Partial pressure of CO2 in atmosphere
0.000356 atm. This number has 3 sig. figs., but leading
zeros are only place-keepers and can cause some
confusion. So express in scientific notation:
3.56 x 10-4 atm
This is much less ambiguous, as the 3 sig. figs. are clearly
shown.

The number of significant figures in a measurement

depends upon the measuring device.

32.33 oC

32.3 oC

Rules for Determining Which Digits are Significant

Leading zeros are not significant.
If the measured quantity has a decimal point start at the left of the
number and move right until you reach the first nonzero digit.
Count that digit and every digit to its right as significant.
Zeros that end a number and lie either after or before the decimal
point are significant; thus 1.030 ml has four significant figures,
and 5300. L has four significant figures also.
Numbers such as 5300 L are assumed to only have 2 significant
figures. A terminal decimal point (or a bar) is often used to clarify
the situation, but scientific notation is the best!
If the measured quantity does not have a decimal point start at the
right of the number and move leftt until you reach the first nonzero
digit.
Count that digit and every digit to its left as significant.

Sample Problem

Determining the Number of Significant Figures

For each of the following quantities, determine the

number of significant figures in each quantity.
(a) 0.0030 L

(b) 0.1044 g

(c) 53,069 mL

(d) 0.00004715 m

(e) 57,600. s

(f) 0.0000007160 cm3

(a) 2sf

(b) 4sf

(c) 5sf

(d) 4sf

(e) 5sf

(f) 4sf

SOLUTION:

Precision and Accuracy

Errors in Scientific Measurements
Precision Refers to reproducibility or how close the measurements are to each
other.
Accuracy Refers to how close a measurement is to the real value.
Systematic error Values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value.
Random Error In the absence of systematic error, some values that are higher and
some that are lower than the actual value.

Figure
1.16

Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

precise and accurate

precise but not accurate

Figure
1.16
continued

Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

random error

systematic error

Avoiding ambiguity
Consider the quantity 1000 g. A little ambiguoushow
many sig. figs. are intended to be in this number?
1.000 x 103 g
1.00 x 103 g
1.0 x 103 g
1 x 103 g

(4 sf)
(3 sf)
(2 sf)
(1 sf)

Using scientific notation takes away the ambiguity.

Rules for using sig. figs. in calculations

Addition and Subtraction
Answer goes to the same decimal place as the
individual number containing the fewest number of sig.
figs. to the right of decimal point.

Example of addition: Formula weight of PbS:

207.2 + 32.066 = 239.266 round to 239.3

Example of subtraction:
4.5237 1.06 = 3.4637 round to 3.46

Adding and subtracting numbers in

scientific notation
First convert all numbers to same power, then apply
rules for adding and subtracting.
Example:
1.032 x 104
2.672 x 105
3.191 x 106

1.032 x 104
26.72 x 104
319.1 x 104
---------------346.852 x 104 round to
346.9 x 104

Rules for Rounding Off Numbers

1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number
increases by 1.
5.379 rounds to 5.38 if three significant figures are retained
and to 5.4 if two significant figures are retained.
2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is
unchanged.
0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if three significant figures are retained
and to 0.24 if two significant figures are retained.
3.If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number increases by
1 if it is odd and remains unchanged if it is even.
17.75 rounds to 17.8, but 17.65 rounds to 17.6.
If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is followed; if the 5 is
followed by nonzeros, rule 1 is followed:
17.6500 rounds to 17.6, but 17.6513 rounds to 17.7
4. Be sure to carry two or more additional significant figures
through a multistep calculation and round off only the final
answer.

About rounding
When rounding, look at all digits to the right of the last
digit you want to keep. If more than halfway to the next
digit, round up. If more than halfway down to next digit,
round down.
Examples:
(A) 4.9271 (round to 3 sf) 4.93
(B) 39.0324 (round to 4 sf) 39.03
(C) 5.43918 x 10-2 (round to 4 sf) 5.439 x 10-2

About rounding
If exactly halfway, round to the nearest even digit. This
avoids systematic round-off error.
Examples:
(A) 4.25 x 10-2 (round to 2 sf) 4.2 x 10-2
(B) 17.87500 (round to 4 sf) 17.88

Rules for using sig. figs. in calculations

Multiplication and division
The number of sig. figs. in the answer should be equal to the
number of sig. figs. found in the individual number which contains
the fewest number of sig. figs., regardless of whether or not the
numbers are expressed in scientific notation or to what power they
are raised.
Examples:
(A) (0.9987 g) (1.0032 mL g-1) = 1.0018958 mL 1.002 mL
(B) (1.721) (1.8 x 10-4) = 3.09780 x 10-4 3.1 x 10-4
(C) 1.2215 x 10-3 / 0.831 = 1.4699158 x 10-3 1.47 x 10-3

Sig. figs. when using logs and antilogs

Remember if n = 10a, log n = a;
a is the logarithm (base 10) of n
Example:
2 is the logarithm of 100 because 102 = 100
n is the antilogarithm of a
Example: 100 is the antilog of 2

Sig. figs. when using logs and antilogs

Also remember that the logarithm of any number
consists of the:
character digits to the left of the decimal place
and the
mantissadigits to the right of the decimal place.
Example:
log 339 = 2.530 the digit 2 is the character;
the digits 530 form the mantissa

Sig. figs. when taking logarithms

To have the correct number of sig. figs., the computed
log of a number should have in its mantissa the same
number of sig. figs. as appears in the number you are
taking the logarithm of.
Example:
log 339 = 2.530 this has the correct # of sig. figs.
because there are 3 sig. figs. in 339, so we keep 3
digits in the mantissa of the logarithm.

Sig. figs. when taking logarithms

Practical example: pH
Remember pH = - log [H+].
Given [H+] = 4.29 x 10-5 M, what is the pH (expressed with
the correct # of sig. figs.)?
- log(4.29 x 10-5) = 4.3675427 (not rounded yet)
Since there are 3 sig. figs. in 4.29 x 10-5, the pH must be
expressed with 3 sig. figs. in the mantissa of the log of
that number.
Correct answer: pH = 4.368

Sig. figs. when taking antilogarithms

The antilog of a number should have the same number
of sig. figs. as appears in the mantissa of the number
you are taking the antilog of.
Practical example: Given a pH of 8.72, what is [H+]?
antilog (-8.72) = 10-8.72 = 1.9054607 x 10-9 (not rounded)
Since there are 2 sig. figs. in the mantissa of -8.72, we
must keep 2 sig. figs. in our answer.
Correct answer: [H+] = 1.9 x 10-9 M

Statistics
Are a tool to answer questions:
How accurate is the analyses?
How many analyses do I have to make to
overcome problems of inhomogeneity or
imprecision?
Does the product meet the specification?
With what confidence is the limit
exceeded?