Matlab Robust Control

Toolbox

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

Purpose
Increase Enthusiasm for Robust Controls
Learn how to simulate control algorithms
with uncertainty
Increase your knowledge in Robust
Controls

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

Outline

What is the Robust Control Toolbox

Uncertainty

Robustness

Robustness and Worst Case Analysis

Parameter-Dependent Systems

MIMO Control

Uncertain Elements
Uncertain Matricies and Systems
Manipulation of Uncertain Models
Interconnection of Uncertain Models
Model Order Reduction

Controller Synthesis
-synthesis

Sampled Data Systems

Gain Scheduling
Supporting Utilities
LMI

Specification of Systems of LMIs

LMI Characteristics
LMI Slovers
Validation of Results
Modification of Systems of LMIs

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

What is the Robust Control Toolbox

A collection of functions and tools that help you to analyze and design MIMO
control systems with uncertain elements
Ability to build uncertain LTI system models containing uncertain parameters
and uncertain dynamics
You get tools to analyze MIMO system stability margins and worst case
performance
Ability to simplify and reduce the order of complex models with model
reduction tools that minimize additive and multiplicative error bounds
It provides tools for implementing advanced robust control methods like H ,
H2, linear matrix inequalities (LMI), and -synthesis robust control
You can shape MIMO system frequency responses and design uncertainty
tolerant controllers

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

Modeling Uncertainty
Arises when system gains or other parameters are not precisely
known, or can vary over a given range
Examples of real parameter uncertainties include uncertain pole and
zero locations and uncertain gains
With the Robust Control Toolbox you can create uncertain LTI
models as objects specifically designed for robust control
applications

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

Sources of Uncertainty
Uncertainty in an system can occur in various forms and from
various sources.

Additive Uncertainty Multiplicative Uncertainty

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

Feedback Uncertainty

Uncertain Elements
1)

UComplex() is a function to define complex uncertain

parameters

2)

Ucomplexm() is a function for the creation of complex valued

uncertain matricies.

3)

Udyn() creates an unstructured uncertain dynamic system

class, with input/output dimension specified by iosize.

4)

Ultidyn() is a function to create an uncertain linear time

inveriant object where only bounds on the frequency
response are known.

5)

Ureal() is a function to define real uncertain parameters used

in various analysis and design functions in the robust control
toolbox.

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

UComplex(Name,nominal value)
UComplex() is a function to define complex uncertain parameters
Sampled Complex Uncertain Parameter A

4.5

Name Variable name for the

uncertain parameter

Nominal Value center nominal

value for the parameter

3.5

radius paramter name to specify

a radius of uncertainty around the
nominal. Radius value should follow
the parameter specification.

2.5

1.5

EX:

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

A = ucomplex('A',4+3*j)
Uncertain Complex Parameter: Name
A,
Nominal Value 4+3i,
Radius 1

April 2006

percentage parameter
specifying an uncertainty percentage
of the nominal for the radius. Value
should follow the parameter
specificaiton
Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

Ucomplexm(Name, nominal value)

Ucomplexm() is a function for the creation of complex valued
uncertain matricies.
Name Variable name for the

EX:
F = ucomplexm('F',[1 2 3;4 5 6],'WL',diag([.1 .3]),...
'WR',diag([.4 .8 1.2]))
Uncertain Complex Matrix: Name F, 2x3
Sampled F(1,1) - F(1,1).NominalValue

8
6
4
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.2

0.25

Sampled F(2,3) - F(2,3).NominalValue

10

0.05

0.1

April 2006

0.15

uncertain parameter
Nominal Value center nominal value
for the parameter
WL,WR WL and WR are square,
invertible, and weighting matrices that
quantify the size and shape of the ball of
matrices represented by this object.
Each parameter name is to be followed
by the respective matrix. (Assumed to
be the identity if left out.)
AutoSimplify parameter to set the
type of simplification to be done on
outputs from the uncertain matrix.
Setting values are off, basic, and full.

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

n = udyn('name',iosize)
Udyn() creates an unstructured uncertain dynamic system class,
with input/output dimension specified by iosize.
Input:
Name Variable name for output
Iosize - input/output dimension
specification. [Input,Output]

Output:
N - an unstructured uncertain
dynamic system class

April 2006

EX:
N = udyn('N',[2 3])
Uncertain Dynamic System:
Name N, size 2x3
size(N)
ans =
2 3
get(N)
Name: 'N'
NominalValue: [2x3 double]
AutoSimplify: 'basic'

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

10

ultidyn('Name',iosize)
Ultidyn() is a function to create an uncertain linear time inveriant
object where only bounds on the frequency response are known.
Parameters Include:

Nyquist Diagram

40

Name variable name

30

Iosize the size of [input, output]

Imaginary Axis

20
10

GainBounded upper bound on the

magnitude of the response.

0
-10

PositiveReal lower bound on the real

part

-20
-30
-40
-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Bound Specifies the actual bound

for the frequency response.

80

Real Axis

EX:
B = ultidyn('B',[1 1],'Type','PositiveReal','Bound',2.5)
B.SampleStateDim = 3;
nyquist(usample(B,30))
Uncertain PositiveReal LTI Dynamics: Name B, 1x1, M+M' >=
2*(2.5)

April 2006

SampleStateDim Specifies the state

dimension to be used by usample().
AutoSimplify specifies the amount of
result simplification.

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

11

Ureal(Name,Nominal Value)
Ureal() is a function to define real uncertain parameters used in various
analysis and design functions in the robust control toolbox.
Parameters Include:
EX:
c = ureal('c',4,'Mode','Range','Percentage',25);
Name: 'c'
NominalValue: 4
Mode: 'Range'
Range: [3 5]
PlusMinus: [-1 1]
Percentage: [-25 25]
AutoSimplify: 'basic'

Name variable name

Nominal Value
Mode Choose uncertainty type
amongst:
Percentage percentage area
around the nominal.
Range a given interval with
the nominal inside.
PlusMinus add and subtract
from nominal
Autosimplify choose amount of
simplification for result.

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

12

Uncertain Matricies and Systems

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

Umat() Uncertain matrices

Uss() creates uncertain state space objects given the
uncertain state space system matricies a,b,c,d.
Ufrd() is a function to create an uncertain frequency
response model which often arises when converting
uncertain state space objects to frequency response
objects.
Randatom() generates a 1-by-1 type uncertain object.
Randumat() Generate random uncertain umat objects
Randuss() Generate stable, random uss objects

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

13

h = umat(m)
Uncertain matrices are usually created by
manipulation of uncertain atoms (ureal,
ucomplex, ultidyn, etc.), double matrices, and
other uncertain matrices
The command umat is rarely used
There are two situations where it may be useful
If M is a double, then H = umat(M) recasts M as
an uncertain matrix (umat object) without any
uncertainties
In both cases, simplify(H,'class') is the same as
M
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

14

uss(a,b,c,d)
Uss() creates uncertain state space objects given the uncertain state
space system matricies a,b,c,d.
Parameters Include:
A,B,C,D umat or other uncertain state
space parameters to describe the
system.
Ts sample time for a discrete time
state space object.
RefSys if a refrence uss is given, the
parameters of that object are included.

EX:
p1 = ureal('p1',5,'Range',[2 6]);
p2 =
ureal('p2',3,'Plusminus',0.4);
A = [-p1 0;p2 -p1];
B = [0;p2];
C = [1 1];
usys = uss(A,B,C,0);

Note: if only one matrix is include, the

function assumes that it represents D
and a static gain matrix.
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

15

ufrd(usys,frequency)
Ufrd() is a function to create an uncertain frequency response
model which often arises when converting uncertain state space
objects to frequency response objects.
Bode Diagram

Magnitude (dB)

0
-10

Parameters Include:

-20
-30

Name uncertain system

-40
45

Phase (deg)

0
-45
-90
-135
-180

-2

10

-1

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

EX:
p1 = ureal('p1',5,'Range',[2 6]);
p2 = ureal('p2',3,'Plusminus',0.4);
p3 = ultidyn('p3',[1 1]);
Wt = makeweight(.15,30,10);
A = [-p1 0;p2 -p1];
B = [0;p2];
C = [1 1];
usys = uss(A,B,C,0)*(1+Wt*p3);
usysfrd = ufrd(usys,logspace(-2,2,60));
bode(usysfrd,'r',usysfrd.NominalValue,'b+')

April 2006

Frequency Range of frequencies for ufrd

model.
Units specify units:
rad/s default
hz

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

16

A = randatom(Type)
Generate random uncertain atom objects
generates a 1-by-1 type uncertain object
Valid values for Type include 'ureal',
'ultidyn', 'ucomplex', and 'ucomplexm'
Example
xr = randatom('ureal')
Uncertain Real Parameter: Name BMSJA, NominalValue -6.75,
Range [-7.70893 -1.89278]

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

17

um = randumat(ny,nu)
Generate random uncertain umat objects
generates an uncertain matrix of size ny-by-nu
andumat randomly selects from uncertain atoms of type 'ureal',
'ultidyn', and 'ucomplex
Example
The following statement creates the umat uncertain object x1 of size 2by-3. Note that your result can differ because a random seed is used
x1 = randumat(2,3)
UMAT: 2 Rows, 3 Columns
ROQAW: complex, nominal = 9.92+4.84i, radius = 0.568, 1
occurrence
UEPDY: real, nominal = -5.81, variability = [-1.98681
0.133993], 3 occurrences
VVNHL: complex, nominal = 5.64-6.13i, radius = 1.99, 2
occurrences

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

18

usys = randuss(n,p,m)

Generate stable, random uss objects

generates an nth order uncertain continuous-time system with p
outputs and m inputs

Example
The statement creates a fifth order, continuous-time uncertain system s1 of
size 2-by-3. Note your display can differ because a random seed is used.
s1 = randuss(5,2,3)
USS: 5 States, 2 Outputs, 3 Inputs, Continuous System
CTPQV: 1x1 LTI, max. gain = 2.2, 1 occurrence
IGDHN: real, nominal = -4.03, variability = [-3.74667 22.7816]%, 1 occurrence
MLGCD: complex, nominal = 8.36+3.09i, +/- 7.07%, 1 occurrence
OEDJK: complex, nominal = -0.346-0.296i, radius = 0.895, 1 occurrence

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

19

Manipulation of Uncertain Models

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

isuncertain() Checks whether argument is an uncertain

class type
simplify() performs model-reduction-like techniques to
detect and eliminate redundant copies of uncertain
elements
usample() substitutes N random samples of the uncertain
objects in A, returning a certain array of size [size(A) N]
usubs() used to substitute a specific value for an uncertain
element of an uncertain object.
gridureal() Grid ureal parameters uniformly over their range
lftdata() Decompose uncertain objects into fixed normalized
and fixed uncertain parts
Ssbal() yields a system whose input/output and uncertain
properties are the same as usys, a uss object.
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

20

B = isuncertain(A)

Checks whether argument is an uncertain class type (checks the

class)
does not actually verify that the input argument is truly uncertain
Returns true if input argument is uncertain, false otherwise
Uncertain classes are umat, ufrd, uss, ureal, ultidyn, ucomplex,
ucomplexm, and udyn
Example
isuncertain(rand(3,4))
ans =
0
isuncertain(ureal('p',4))
ans =
1
isuncertain(rss(4,3,2))
ans =
0
isuncertain(rss(4,3,2)*[ureal('p1',4) 6;0 1])
ans =
1

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

21

B = simplify(A)
Simplify representations of uncertain objects
performs model-reduction-like techniques to detect and eliminate
redundant copies of uncertain elements
After reduction, any uncertain element which does not actually affect
the result is deleted from the representation
Example
Create a simple umat with a single uncertain real parameter. Select specific elements, note that result remains
in class umat. Simplify those same elements, and note that class changes.
p1 = ureal('p1',3,'Range',[2 5]);
L = [2 p1];
L(1)
UMAT: 1 Rows, 1 Columns
L(2)
UMAT: 1 Rows, 1 Columns
p1: real, nominal = 3, range = [2 5], 1 occurrence
simplify(L(1))
ans =
2
simplify(L(2))
Uncertain Real Parameter: Name p1, NominalValue 3, Range [2 5]

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

22

B = usample(A,N)

substitutes N random samples of the uncertain objects in A,

returning a certain array of size [size(A) N]

Example
A = ureal('A',5);
Asample = usample(A,500);
size(A)
ans =
1 1
size(Asample)
ans =
1 1 500
class(Asample)
ans =
double
hist(Asample(:))

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

23

B = usubs(M,StrucArray)
Substitute given values for uncertain
elements of uncertain objects
Example
p = ureal('p',5);
m = [1 p;p^2 4];
size(m)
ans =
2 2
m1 = usubs(m,'p',5)
m1 =
1 5
25 4
NamesValues.p = 5;
m2 = usubs(m,NamesValues)
m2 =
1 5
25 4
m1 - m2
ans =
0 0
0 0

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

24

B = gridreal(A,N)

Grid ureal parameters uniformly over their range

substitutes N uniformly spaced samples of the uncertain real parameters in A
The N samples are generated by uniformly gridding each ureal in A across its
range
Example
gamma = ureal('gamma',4);
tau = ureal('tau',.5,'Percentage',30);
p = tf(gamma,[tau 1]);
KI = 1/
(2*tau.Nominal*gamma.Nominal);
c = tf(KI,[1 0]);
clp = feedback(p*c,1);
subplot(2,1,1);
step(gridureal(p,20),6)
title('Open-loop plant step responses')
subplot(2,1,2);
step(gridureal(clp,20),6)

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

25

[M,Delta] = lftdata(A)

Decompose uncertain objects into fixed normalized and fixed uncertain parts
partially decompose an uncertain object into an uncertain part and a normalized
uncertain part
Uncertain objects (umat, ufrd, uss) are represented as certain objects in feedback
with block-diagonal concatenations of uncertain elements
separates the uncertain object A into a certain object M and a normalized uncertain
matrix Delta such that A is equal to lft(Delta,M), as shown below

Example
p1 = ureal('p1',-3,'perc',40);
p2 = ucomplex('p2',2);
A = [p1 p1+p2;1 p2];
[M,Delta] = lftdata(A);
simplify(A-lft(Delta,M))
ans =
0 0
0 0
M
M=
0
0 1.0954 1.0954
0
0
0 1.0000
1.0954 1.0000 -3.0000 -1.0000
0 1.0000 1.0000 2.0000

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

26

usysout = ssbal(usys,Wc)
Ssbal() yields a system whose input/output and uncertain
properties are the same as usys, a uss object.
Input:

Usys - a continuous-time
uncertain system

Wc - the critical frequency for the

bilinear prewarp transformation
from continuous time to discrete
time. (Default is 1)

EX:
p2=ureal('p2',-17,'Range',[-19 -11]);
p1=ureal('p1',3.2,'Percentage',0.43);
A = [-12 p1;.001 p2];
B = [120 -809;503 24];
C = [.034 .0076; .00019 2];
usys = ss(A,B,C,zeros(2,2))

Output:

USS: 2 States, 2 Outputs, 2 Inputs, Continuous System

p1: real, nominal = 3.2, variability = [-0.43 0.43]%, 1 occurrence
p2: real, nominal = -17, range = [-19 -11], 1 occurrence

usysout = ssbal(usys)

Usysout - a system whose

input/output and uncertain
properties are the same as usys,
a uss object. (The numerical
conditioning of usysout is usually
better than that of usys.)

April 2006

USS: 2 States, 2 Outputs, 2 Inputs, Continuous System

p1: real, nominal = 3.2, variability = [-0.43 0.43]%, 1
occurrence
p2: real, nominal = -17, range = [-19 -11], 1 occurrence

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

27

ndist = actual2normalized(A,V)
the normalized distance between the
nominal value of the uncertain atom A and
the given value V
If V is an array of values, then ndist is an
array of normalized distances

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

28

avalue = normalizedactual2(A,NV)

Convert the value for an atom in normalized coordinates to the

corresponding actual value
converts the value for atom in normalized coordinates, NV, to the
corresponding actual value
Example
a = ureal('a',3,'range',[1 5]);
actual2normalized(a,[1 3 5])
ans =
-1.0000 -0.0000 1.0000
normalized2actual(a,[-1 1])
ans =
1.0000 5.0000
normalized2actual(a,[-1.5 1.5])
ans =
0.0000 6.0000

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

29

umatout =
stack(arraydim,umat1,umat2,...)
Construct an array by stacking uncertain matrices, models, or arrays
along array dimensions of an uncertain array
All models must have the same number of columns and rows
Example
Consider usys1 and usys2, two single-input/single-output uss
models:
zeta = ureal('zeta',1,'Range',[0.4 4]);
wn = ureal('wn',0.5,'Range',[0.3 0.7]);
P1 = tf(1,[1 2*zeta*wn wn^2]);
P2 = tf(zeta,[1 10]);
You can stack along the first dimension to produce a 2-by-1 uss array.
stack(1,P1,P1)
USS: 2 States, 1 Output, 1 Input, Continuous System [array, 2 x 1]
wn: real, nominal = 0.5, range = [0.3 0.7], 3 occurrences
zeta: real, nominal = 1, range = [0.4 4], 1 occurrence

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

30

B = squeeze(A)
Remove singleton dimensions for umat
objects
returns an array B with the same elements
as A but with all the singleton dimensions
removed
A singleton is a dimension such that
size(A,dim)==1
2-D arrays are unaffected by squeeze so
that row vectors remain rows
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

31

Interconnection of Uncertain
Models
1.
2.
3.
4.

Imp2exp() transforms a linear constraint between

variables into an explicit input/output relationship
Sysic Builds interconnections of certain and uncertain
matrices and systems
Iconnect Builds complex interconnections of uncertain
matrices and systems
Icsignal Specifies signal constraints described by the
interconnection of components

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

32

B = imp2exp(A,yidx,uidx)
transforms a linear constraint between variables Y and U
of the form A(:,[yidx;uidx])*[Y;U] = 0 into an explicit
input/output relationship Y = B*U
The vectors yidx and uidx refer to the columns (inputs) of
A as referenced by the explicit relationship for B
The constraint matrix A can be a double, ss, tf, zpk and
frd object as well as an uncertain object, including umat,
uss and ufrd
The result B will be of the same class

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

33

sysout = sysic

Build interconnections of certain and uncertain

matrices and systems
requires that 3 variables with fixed names be
present in the calling workspace:
systemnames, inputvar and outputvar
systemnames is a char containing the names
of the subsystems that make up the
interconnection
nputvar is a char, defining the names of the
external inputs to the interconnection
outputvar is a char, describing the outputs of
the interconnection
Also requires that for every subsystem name
listed in systemnames, a corresponding
variable, input_to_ListedSubSystemName
must exist in the calling workspace
This variable is similar to outputvar - it defines
the input signals to this particular subsystem as
linear combinations of individual subsystem's
outputs and external inputs
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

34

H = iconnect

Create empty iconnect (interconnection) objects

Interconnection objects (class iconnect) are an alternative to sysic,
and are used to build complex interconnections of uncertain
matrices and systems
An iconnect object has 3 fields to be set by the user, Input, Output
and Equation
Input and Output are icsignal objects, while Equation is a cell-array
of equality constraints (using equate) on icsignal objects
the System property is the input/output model, implied by the
constraints in Equation relating the variables defined in Input and
Output

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

35

v = icsignal(n,'name')
Create an icsignal object
creates an icsignal object of length n, which is a
symbolic column vector
used with iconnect objects to specify signal constraints
described by the interconnection of components
internal name identifiers given by the character string
argument name

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

36

Model Order Reduction and

Application
Complex models are not always required for
good control
Optimization methods generally tend to produce
controllers with at least as many states as the
plant model
The Robust Control Toolbox offers you an
assortment of model-order reduction commands
Less complex low-order approximations to plant
and controller models
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

37

Model Order Reduction Tools

The Robust Control Toolbox has various controller synthesis
tools outlined below:
1. reduce() returns a reduced order model
2. balancmr() Balanced model truncation via square root method
3. bstmr() Balanced stochastic model truncation (BST) via Schur method
4. hankelmr() Hankel Minimum Degree Approximation (MDA) without
balancing

5. hankelsv() Computes Hankel singular values for stable/unstable or

continuous/discrete system

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

38

Model Order Reduction Tools cont:

6. modreal() returns a set of state-space LTI objects in modal form
7. ncfmr() Balanced model truncation for normalized coprime factors.
8. shurmr() Balanced model truncation via Schur method
9. slowfast() computes the slow and fast modes decompositions of a
system

10. stabproj() computes the stable and antistable projections of a minimal

realization

11. imp2ss() produces an approximate state-space realization of a given

impulse response

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

39

GRED = reduce(G,order)
Returns a reduced order model of G
Groups all the Hankel SV based model reduction
routines
Hankel singular values of a stable system indicate the
respective state energy of the system.
In many cases, the additive error method
GRED=reduce(G,ORDER) is adequate to provide a
good reduced order model.
for systems with lightly damped poles and/or zeros, a
multiplicative error method (namely,
GRED=reduce(G,ORDER,'ErrorType','mult')) that
minimizes the relative error between G and GRED tends
to produce a better fit.
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

40

GRED = balancmr(G,order)
balanced truncation model reduction for
continuous/discrete & stable/unstable plant.
With only one input argument G, the function will show a
Hankel singular value plot of the original model and
prompt for model order number to reduce.

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

41

GRED = bstmr(G,order)
Balanced stochastic truncation (BST) model reduction
for continuous/discrete & stable/unstable plant.
bstmr returns a reduced order model GRED of G
With only one input argument G, the function will show a
Hankel singular value plot of the phase matrix of G and
prompt for model order number to reduce
This method guarantees an error bound on the infinity
norm of the multiplicative || GRED-1(G-GRED) || or
relative error || G-1(G-GRED) || for well-conditioned
model reduction problems
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

42

GRED = hankelmr(G,order)
Optimal Hankel norm approximation for
continuous/discrete & stable/unstable plant
hankelmr returns a reduced order model GRED of G
With only one input argument G, the function will show a
Hankel singular value plot of the original model and
prompt for model order number to reduce
This method guarantees an error bound on the infinity
norm of the additive error || G-GRED || for wellconditioned model reduced problems

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

43

hankelsv(G)

Compute Hankel singular values for stable/unstable or continuous/discrete

system
draws a bar graph of the Hankel singular values such as the following:

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

44

[G1,G2] = modreal(G,cut)
State-space modal truncation/realization
returns a set of state-space LTI objects G1 and G2 in
modal form given a state-space G and the model size of
G1, cut
The modal form realization has its A matrix in block
diagonal form with either 1x1 or 2x2 blocks. The real
eigenvalues will be put in 1x1 blocks and complex
eigenvalues will be put in 2x2 blocks. These diagonal
blocks are ordered in ascending order based on
eigenvalue magnitudes
G can be stable or unstable

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

45

GRED = ncfmr(G,order)
balanced truncation model reduction for normalized
coprime factors of continuous/discrete & stable/unstable
G
ncfmr returns a reduced order model GRED formed by a
set of balanced normalized coprime factors
With only one input argument G, the function will show a
Hankel singular value plot of the original model and
prompt for model order number to reduce
The left and right normalized coprime factors are defined
as:

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

46

GRED = schurmr(G,order)
Schur balanced truncation model reduction for
continuous/discrete & stable/unstable plant
schurmr returns a reduced order model GRED of
G
With only one input argument G, the function will
show a Hankel singular value plot of the original
model and prompt for model order number to
reduce
This method guarantees an error bound on the
infinity norm of the additive error || G-GRED || for
well-conditioned model reduced problems
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

47

G1,G2] = slowfast(G,cut)
State-space slow-fast decomposition
computes the slow and fast modes decompositions
of a system G(s) such that: G s G s G s
s

G s f : ( A 22 , B 2 , C 2 , D 2 )

April 2006

G s s : ( A11 , B1 , C1 , D 1 )

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

48

[G1,G2,m] = stabproj(G)
State-space stable/anti-stable decomposition
stabproj computes the stable and antistable projections
of a minimal realization G(s) such that:

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

49

[a,b,c,d,totbnd,hsv] =
imp2ss(y,ts,nu,ny,tol)
System identification via impulse response
The function imp2ss produces an approximate state-space realization
of a given impulse response imp=mksys(y,t,nu,ny,'imp');
A continuous-time realization is computed via the inverse Tustin
transform if t is positive; otherwise a discrete-time realization is
returned
In the SISO case the variable y is the impulse response vector; in the
MIMO case y is an N+1-column matrix containing N + 1 time samples
of the matrix-valued impulse response H0, ..., HN of an nu-input, nyoutput system stored row-wise.
The variable tol bounds the H norm of the error between the
approximate realization (a, b, c, d) and an exact realization of y
The inputs ts, nu, ny, tol are optional; if not present they default to the
values ts = 0, nu = 1, ny = (number of rows of y)/nu, tol =
1.01sigmabar1
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

50

Robustness and Worst Case

Analysis

To be robust, your control system should meet your stability and performance
requirements for all possible values of uncertain parameters
Monte Carlo parameter sampling via usample can be used for this purpose, but
Monte Carlo methods are inherently hit or miss
The Robust Control Toolbox gives you a powerful assortment of robustness analysis
commands that let you directly calculate upper and lower bounds on worst-case
performance without random sampling:

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

51

Performance Analysis

The hyperbola is used to define the performance margin.

Systems whose performance degradation curve intersects high on the hyperbola curve
represent "non-robustly-performing systems" in that very small deviations of the uncertain
elements from their nominal values can result in very large system gains.
Conversely, an intersection low on the hyperbola represent "robustly-performing systems."

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

52

Small Gain Theorem

When the plant modeling uncertainty is not too big, you can design high-gain,
high-performance feedback controllers. High loop gains significantly larger than 1
in magnitude can attenuate the effects of plant model uncertainty and reduce the
overall sensitivity of the system to plant noise.
But if your plant model uncertainty is so large that you do not even know the sign
of your plant gain, then you cannot use large feedback gains without the risk that
the system will become unstable. Thus, plant model uncertainty can be a
fundamental limiting factor in determining what can be achieved with feedback.
The Small Gain Theorem asserts that the overall system gain must therefore be
kept below 1 to assure stability.
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

53

Robustness and Worst Case

Performance Tools
The Robust Control Toolbox has various controller synthesis
tools outlined below:
1. cpmargin() calculates the normalized coprime factor/gap metric robust stability of the
multivariable feedback loop consisting of C in negative feedback with P.
2. Gapmetric() calculates upper bounds on the gap and nugap metric between systems
3. loopmargin() analyzes the multivariable feedback loop consisting of the loop transfer
matrix.
4. loopsens() Creates a Struct, loops, whose fields contain the multivariable sensitivity,
complementary and open-loop transfer functions.
5. mussv() calculates upper and lower bounds on the structured singular value, or , for
a given block structure.
6. Mussvextract() is used to extract the compressed information within muinfo into a
readable form.

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

54

Robustness and Worst Case

Performance Tools cont:
7. ncfmargin() Calculates the normalized coprime stability margin of the
plant-controller feedback loop
8. popov() uses the Popov criterion to test the robust stability of dynamical
systems with possibly nonlinear and/or time-varying uncertainty.
9. robustperf() Calculates the robust performance margin of an uncertain
multivariable system.
10. robuststab() Calculate robust stability margins of an uncertain
multivariable system.
11. robopt() Creates an options object for use with robuststab and robustperf
12. wcnorm() Calculate the worst-case norm of an uncertain matrix

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

55

Robustness and Worst Case

Performance Tools cont:
13. wcgain() Calculates bounds on the worst-case gain of an uncertain system
14. wcgopt() creates a wcgain, wcsens and wcmargin options object called options in
which specified properties have specific values.
15. wcmargin() calculates the combined worst-case input and output loop-at-a-time
gain/phase margins of the feedback loop
16. wcsens() Calculate the worst-case sensitivity and complementary sensitivity
functions of a plant-controller feedback loop

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

56

[MARG,FREQ] =
cpmargin(P,C,TOL)
Cpmargin() calculates the normalized coprime factor/gap metric robust stability of the
multivariable feedback loop consisting of C in negative feedback with P.

Input Parameters:

Output Parameters:

P LTI plant

Marg - contains upperand lower

bound for the normalized coprime
factor/gap metric robust stability
margin

C only feedback controller

Tol - specifies a relative accuracy for
calculating the normalized coprime
factor/gap metric robust stability margin

April 2006

Freq - the frequency associated with

the upper bound

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

57

[gap,nugap] = gapmetric(p0,p1,tol)
EX:
p1 = tf(1,[1 -0.001]);
p2 = tf(1,[1 0.001]);
[g,ng] = gapmetric(p1,p2)
K = 1;
H1 = loopsens(p1,K);
H2 = loopsens(p2,K);
subplot(2,2,1); bode(H1.Si,'-',H2.Si,'--');
subplot(2,2,2); bode(H1.Ti,'-',H2.Ti,'--');
subplot(2,2,3); bode(H1.PSi,'-',H2.PSi,'--');
subplot(2,2,4); bode(H1.CSo,'-',H2.CSo,'--');

Bode Diagram

-50
-100
180
90
0
-5
10

10

50
0

-45
-90
-2
10

Bode Diagram

0
-50
0
-45
-90
-2
10

10

g = 0.0029
ng = 0.0020

Input:
P0,P1 plants of the same size
Tol tolerance for the gap metric (default
is .001)

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

10

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

50

Bode Diagram

-50
0

Frequency (rad/sec)

Frequency (rad/sec)

April 2006

Phase (deg)Magnitude (dB)

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

Gapmetric() calculates upper bounds on the gap and nugap metric

between systems p0 and p1.

Bode Diagram

-50
-100
180
90
0
-5
10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Output:
Gap gap metric value
Nugap nugap metric value
(For gap or nugap, a value close to 0 means
the plants are far apart and a value close to 1
means they are close together.)

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

58

loopmargin(L)

[SM, DM, MM] = Loopmargin() is a tool to

determine the closed loop margins for an
uncertain system.
Outputs include:
SM A structure containing the nominal
system margins.
DM also called disk margin. Describes
the disk of deviations from the nominal
system.
MM establishes guaranteed bounds on
the system with variations from all input
channels.
April 2006
Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

59

loopsens(P,C)
Loopsens() creates a structure which contains the multivariable
sensitivity, complementary and open-loop transfer functions.
Structure Output Fields:

EX:
int = tf(1,[1 0]);
addunc = ultidyn('addunc',[1 1],'Bound',0.2);
uncint = int + addunc;
int3 = blkdiag(int,uncint,int);
p = [1 .2 .5;-.5 0 1;1 0 0;0 1 0]*int3;
gain = ureal('gain',0.9, 'Range',[-3 1.5]);
c = [.02 .3 0 0;1 -.3 .32 gain; 0 1 -.2 .1];
loops = loopsens(p,c)

April 2006

Poles - Closed-loop poles. NaN for

frd/ufrd objects.
Stable - 1 if nominal closed loop is
stable, 0 otherwise. NaN for frd/ufrd
objects.
Si - Input-to-plant sensitivity function
Ti - Input-to-plant complementary
sensitivity function
Li - Input-to-plant loop transfer
function
So - Output-to-plant sensitivity
function
To - Output-to-plant complementary
sensitivity function
Lo - Output-to-plant loop transfer
function
PSi - Plant times input-to-plant
sensitivity function
CSo - Compensator times output-toplant sensitivity function

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

60

[bounds,muinfo] =
mussv(M,BlockStructure)
Mussv() calculates upper and lower bounds on the structured singular value, or ,
for a given block structure.
Input:
M - is a double or a frd object
BlockStructure - a matrix specifying the
perturbation block structure consisting
of 2 rows and as many columns as
uncertainty blocks.
Output:
Bounds upper and lower bounds on
the mu value of the system.
Muinfo a structure containing
additional information

April 2006

EX:
M = randn(5,5) + sqrt(-1)*randn(5,5);
F = randn(2,5) + sqrt(-1)*randn(2,5);
BlockStructure = [-1 0;-1 0;1 1;2 0];
[ubound,Q] =
mussv(M,F,BlockStructure);
points completed (of 1) ... 1
bounds = mussv(M,BlockStructure);
optbounds =
mussv(M+Q*F,BlockStructure,'C5');
[optbounds(1) ubound]
1.5917 1.5925
[bounds(1) bounds(2)]
3.8184 3.7135

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

61

[VDelta,VSigma,VLmi] =
mussvextract(muinfo)
Mussvextract() is used to extract the compressed information within
muinfo into a readable form.
Input:
Muinfo a variable returned by
mussv() with information
Ouput:
VDelta used to verify the lower
bound
VSigma a structure of
information used to verify the
Newlin/Young upper bound

EX:
M = randn(4,4) + sqrt(-1)*randn(4,4);
BlockStructure = [1 1;1 1;2 2];
[bounds,muinfo] = mussv(M,BlockStructure);
[VDelta,VSigma,VLmi] = mussvextract(muinfo);

VLmi a structure of information

used to verify the LMI upper
bound

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

62

[marg,freq] = ncfmargin(P,C,tol)
Ncfmargin() calculates the normalized coprime factor/gap metric
robust stability margin b(P, C), marg, of the multivariable
feedback loop consisting of C in negative feedback with P.
Input:
P LTI plant model
C Compensator in the feedback path
Tol tolerance for the ncfmargin must
be between .00001 and .01
Output:
Marg - the normalized coprime
factor/gap metric robust stability margin
b(P, C)
Freq destabilizing frequency

April 2006

EX:
x = tf(4,[1 0.001]);
clp1 = feedback(x,1);
clp2 = feedback(x,10);
[marg1,freq1] = ncfmargin(x,1);
[marg2,freq2] = ncfmargin(x,10);
marg1 = 0.7071
freq1 = Inf
marg2 = 0.0995
freq2 = Inf

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

63

[t,P,S,N] = popov(sys,delta,flag)
Perform the Popov robust stability test
uses the Popov criterion to test the robust
stability of dynamical systems with
possibly nonlinear and/or time-varying
uncertainty
The uncertain system must be described
as the interconnection of a nominal LTI
system sys and some uncertainty delta
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

64

[perfmarg,perfmargunc,Report] =
robustperf(sys)
Robustperf() is a tool to determine the robust performance margin
which sets bounds on the robustness of a nominally stable system
to given uncertainty.
EX:
Structure Output Fields:
Perfmarg performance margin: lower
bound, upper bound, and critical
frequency.
Perfmargunc structure of values of
critical uncertain elements of the
system.
Report A text description of the
robustness analysis.

April 2006

P = tf(1,[1 0]) + ultidyn('delta',[1 1],'bound',0.4);

BW = 0.8;
K = tf(BW,[1/(25*BW) 1]);
S = feedback(1,P*K);
[perfmargin,punc] = robustperf(S);
perfmargin =
UpperBound: 7.4305e-001
LowerBound: 7.4305e-001
CriticalFrequency: 5.3096e+000

Note: Output may not contain true critical frequency

because of the assigned frequency range over which the
function operates. For limitations, see the function
definition in the matlab help.

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

65

[stabmarg,destabunc,Report] =
robuststab(sys)
Robuststab() is used to determine the robust stability margin for a
nominally stable uncertain system up to the closest instability from the
stable nominal.
EX:
Structure Output Fields:
Stabmarg robust stability margin: lower
bound, upper bound, destabilizing frequency.
Destabunc structure of uncertain values
closest to the nominal that cause instability.
Report text description of the stability
analysis
Note: Output may not contain all unstable
frequencies because of the assigned frequency
range over which the function operates. For
limitations, see the function definition in the
matlab help.

April 2006

P = tf(4,[1 .8 4]);
delta = ultidyn('delta',[1 1],'SampleStateDim',5);
Pu = P + 0.25*tf([1],[.15 1])*delta;
C = tf([1 1],[.1 1]) + tf(2,[1 0]);
S = feedback(1,Pu*C);
[stabmarg,destabunc,report,info] = robuststab(S);
report =
Uncertain System is NOT robustly stable to modeled uncertainty.
-- It can tolerate up to 81.8% of modeled uncertainty.
-- A destabilizing combination of 81.8% the modeled uncertainty
exists, causing an instability at 9.13 rad/s.
-- Sensitivity with respect to uncertain element ...
'delta' is 100%. Increasing 'delta' by 25% leads to a 25% decrease
in the margin.

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

66

opts =
robopt('name1',value1,'name2',value2,...)
Robopt() creates an options object for use with robuststab and
robustperf.

EX:
opt = robopt
Property Object Values:
Display: 'off'
Sensitivity: 'on'
VaryUncertainty: 25
Mussv: 'sm9'
Default: [1x1 struct]
Meaning: [1x1 struct]

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

67

[maxnorm,wcu] = wcnorm(m)
Wcnorm() determines the maximum norm over all allowable values of
the uncertain elements and is referred to as a worst-case norm
analysis.
EX:
a=ureal('a',5,'Range',[4 6]);
b=ureal('b',2,'Range',[1 3]);
b=ureal('b',3,'Range',[2 10]);
c=ureal('c',9,'Range',[8 11]);
d=ureal('d',1,'Range',[0 2]);
M = [a b;c d];
Mi = inv(M);

Input:
M - a umat or a uss
Output:
Maxnorm a structure with fields:

[maxnormM] = wcnorm(M)
maxnormM =
LowerBound: 14.7199
UpperBound: 14.7327

Wcu - a structure that includes values of

uncertain elements and maximizes the
matrix norm

April 2006

[maxnormMi] = wcnorm(Mi)
maxnormMi =
LowerBound: 2.5963
UpperBound: 2.5979

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

68

[maxgain,maxgainunc] =
wcgain(sys)
Wcgain() calculates the worst case gain frequency response of a
given system due to uncertain elements. Pointwise-in-frequency
analysis creates a response curve for the system.
Structure Output Fields:
Maxgain maximum gain: lower
bound, upper bound, critical frequency.
Maxgainunc structure containing
uncertain elements that maximize the
gain.
Options set in wcopt():
Pointwise-in-frequency- creates a
response curve for the system.
Peak-over-frequency computes the
largest gain over all freqencies.

April 2006

EX:
P = tf(1,[1 0]) + ultidyn('delta',[1 1],'bound',0.4);
BW1 = 0.8;
K1 = tf(BW1,[1/(25*BW1) 1]);
S1 = feedback(1,P*K1);
BW2 = 2.0;
K2 = tf(BW2,[1/(25*BW2) 1]);
S2 = feedback(1,P*K2);
[maxgain1,wcunc1] = wcgain(S1);
maxgain1 =
LowerBound: 1.5070e+000
UpperBound: 1.5080e+000
CriticalFrequency: 5.3096e+000
Note: Output may not contain all unstable frequencies because of the
assigned frequency range over which the function operates. For
limitations, see the function definition in the matlab help .

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

69

options =
wcgopt('name1',value1,'name2',value2,...)
Wcgopt() creates a wcgain, wcsens and wcmargin options object
called options in which specified properties have specific values.
EX:
opt = wcgopt('MaxTime',10000,'Sensitivity','off')
Property Object Values:
Sensitivity: 'off'
LowerBoundOnly: 'off'
FreqPtWise: 0
ArrayDimPtWise: []
VaryUncertainty: 25
Default: [1x1 struct]
Meaning: [1x1 struct]
AbsTol: 0.0200
RelTol: 0.0500
MGoodThreshold: 1.0400
AGoodThreshold: 0.0500
MBadThreshold: 20
ABadThreshold: 5
NTimes: 2
MaxCnt: 3
MaxTime: 10000

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

70

[wcmargi,wcmargo] = wcmargin(L)
Wcmargin() describes a disk within with the nominal gain margin and phase
margin are stable for an uncertain system.

Output Structure Fields:

Wcmargi contains gain margin
bound, phase margin in degrees,
frequency associate with worst case,
and a structure containing the
sensitivity to all uncertain elements.
Wcmargo same structure as
wcmargi but gives single loop values
for each.

April 2006

EX:
a = [0 10;-10 0];
b = eye(2);
c = [1 8;-10 1];
d = zeros(2,2);
G = ss(a,b,c,d);
K = [1 -2;0 1]; ingain1 = ureal('ingain1',1,'Range',[0.97 1.06]);
b = [ingain1 0;0 1];
Gunc = ss(a,b,c,d);
unmod = ultidyn('unmod',[2 2],'Bound',0.08);
Gmod = (eye(2)+unmod)*Gunc;
Gmodg = ufrd(Gmod,logspace(-1,3,60));
[wcmi,wcmo] = wcmargin(Gmodg,K);
wcmi(1) =
GainMargin: [0.3613 2.7681]
PhaseMargin: [-50.2745 50.2745]
Frequency: 0.1000
Sensitivity: [1x1 struct]

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

71

wcst = wcsens(L)
Wcsens() determines the worst case sensitivity of a system to
various input and disturbance parameters in an uncertain system L.
5

Output Structure Fields:

Bode Diagram

Si - Worst-case input-to-plant sensitivity

function
Ti - Worst-case input-to-plant complementary
sensitivity function

Magnitude (dB)

-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30

So - Worst-case output-to-plant sensitivity

function

-35
-1
10

Nominal Sensitivity
Worst-Case Sensitivity
0

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

EX:
delta = ultidyn('delta',[1 1]);
tau = ureal('tau',5,'range',[4 6]);
P = tf(1,[tau 1])*(1+0.25*delta);
PSi - Worst-case plant times input-to-plant
C=tf([4 4],[1 0]);
sensitivity function
looptransfer = loopsens(P,C);
CSo - Worst-case compensator times output- Snom = looptransfer.Si.NominalValue;
wcst = wcsens(P,C) ;
to-plant sensitivity function
Swc = wcst.Si.BadSystem;
Stable - 1 if nominal closed loop is stable, 0 omega = logspace(-1,1,50);
bodemag(Snom,'-',Swc,'-.',omega);
otherwise. NaN for frd/ufrd objects.
legend('Nominal Sensitivity','Worst-Case Sensitivity',...
'Location','SouthEast')

To - Worst-case output-to-plant
complementary sensitivity function

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

72

Robust Analysis for Parameter

Dependent Systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

psys() specifies state-space models where the state-space

matrices can be uncertain, time-varying, or parameter-dependent.
psinfo() a multi-usage function for queries about a polytopic or
parameter-dependent system
ispsys() returns 1 if sys is a polytopic or parameter-dependent
system
pvec() used in conjunction with psys to specify parameterdependent systems.
pvinfo() retrieves information about a vector of real parameters
declared with pvec and stored in pv
polydec() takes an uncertain parameter vector PV taking values
ranging in a box, and returns the corners or vertices of the box as
columns of the matrix vertx

April 2006

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Kedrick Black

73

Robust Analysis for Parameter

Dependent Systems cont.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

aff2pol() Derives a polytopic representation polsys of the affine

parameter- dependent system.
quadstab() seeks a fixed Lyapunov function that establishes
quadratic stability
quadperf() Compute the quadratic H-inf performance of a
polytopic or parameter-dependent system
pdlstab() uses parameter-dependent Lyapunov functions to
establish the stability of uncertain state-space models over some
parameter range or polytope of systems.
decay() returns the quadratic decay rate drate
pdsimul() simulates the time response of an affine parameterdependent system

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

74

pols = psys(syslist)
affs = psys(pv,syslist)

Specify a parameter-dependent system

psys specifies state-space models where the state-space matrices
can be uncertain, time-varying, or parameter-dependent.

a polytopic model with vertex systems S1, . . ., S4 is created by pols =

psys([s1,s2,s3,s4]) while an affine parameter-dependent model with 4 real
parameters is defined by
affs = psys(pv,[s0,s1,s2,s3,s4])
The output is a structured matrix storing all the relevant information

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

75

[type,k,ns,ni,no] = psinfo(ps)
Query characteristics of a P-system
displays the type of system (affine or
polytopic)
the number k of SYSTEM matrices
involved in its definition
the numbers of ns, ni, no of states, inputs,
and outputs of the system
April 2006

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Kedrick Black

76

bool = ispsys(sys)
True for parameter-dependent systems
returns 1 if sys is a polytopic or parameterdependent system

April 2006

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Kedrick Black

77

pv = pvec('box',range,rates)
pv = pvec('pol',vertices)

Specify a vector of uncertain or time-varying parameters used in

conjunction with psys to specify parameter-dependent systems
The type 'box' corresponds to independent parameters ranging in intervals
(extremal values)
The parameter vector p then takes values in a hyperrectangle of Rn called
the parameter box
range is an n-by-2 matrix that stacks up the extremal values
type 'pol' corresponds to parameter vectors p ranging in a polytope of the
parameter space Rn
efined by a set of vertices V1, . . ., Vn corresponding to "extremal" values
of the vector p
second argument is the concatenation of the vectors v1,...,vn
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

78

[typ,k,nv] = pvinfo(pv)
pvinfo(pv) displays the type of parameter
vector ('box' or 'pol'), the number n of
scalar parameters, and for the type 'pol',
the number of vertices used to specify the
parameter range

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

79

vertx = polydec(PV)
Compute polytopic coordinates wrt. box
corners
takes an uncertain parameter vector PV
taking values ranging in a box, and returns
the corners or vertices of the box as
columns of the matrix vertx

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

80

polsys = aff2pol(affsys)
Convert affine P-systems to polytopic representation
derives a polytopic representation polsys of the affine
parameter- dependent system
Where p = (p1, . . ., pn) is a vector of uncertain or
timevarying real parameters taking values in a box or a polytope. The
description affsys of this system should be specified with psys

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

81

[tau,P] = quadstab(ps,options)

Assess quadratic stability of parameter-dependent system

Quadratic stability of polytopic or affine parameter-dependent systems

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

82

[perf,P] = quadperf(ps,g,options)

Assess quadratic Hinf performance of P-systems

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

83

[tau,Q0,Q1,...] = pdlstab(pds,options)

Assess the robust stability of a polytopic or parameter-dependent

system
uses parameter-dependent Lyapunov functions to establish the
stability of uncertain state-space models over some parameter
range or polytope of systems

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

84

[drate,P] = decay(ps,options)
Compute quadratic decay rate

April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
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85

pdsimul(pds,'traj',tf,'ut',xi,options)

Time response of a parameter-dependent system along a given

parameter trajectory along a parameter trajectory p(t) and for an input
signal u(t)

The parameter trajectory and input signals are specified by two time
functions p=traj(t) and u=ut(t)
The affine system pds is specified with psys but can also use the
polytopic representation of such systems as returned by aff2pol(pds) or
hinfgs
The final time and initial state vector can be reset through tf and xi
options gives access to the parameters controlling the ODE integration

April 2006

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Robust Controller Synthesis Tools

The Robust Control Toolbox has various controller synthesis
tools outlined below:
1. Augw() computes a state-space model of an augmented LTI plant with
weighting functions
2. Hinfmix() creates a suboptimal controller K(s) based on the optimization of a
mixed H2/ H criterion.
3. H2syn() computes a stabilizing LTI/SS controller K for a partitioned plant
P(s).
4. Hinfsyn() creates an optimal H-inifinity controller for a partitioned plant matrix
P.
5. Sdhinfsyn() synthesizes a sampled data H-infinity controller.
6. Loopsyn() is an H infinity optimal way for loopshaping controller synthisis.

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Robust Controller Synthesis Tools

cont:
7. Ltrsyn() computes a reconstructed-state output-feedback
controller K for LTI plant G using Kalman filtering to
asymptotically recover the lost states.
8. Mixsyn() is H-infinity mixed-sensitivity synthesis method for
robust control loopshaping design.
9. Ncfsyn() is a normalized coprime factorization based
parameterized controller synthesis using the Glover-McFarlane
method for loopshaping.
10.Mkfilter() returns a single-input, single-output analog low pass
filter sys as an ss object.

April 2006

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P = AUGW(G,W1,W2,W3)
Augw() computes a state-space model of an augmented LTI plant P(s)
with weighting functions W1(s), W2(s), and W3(s) penalizing the error
signal, control signal and output signal respectively.
Singular Values

60
S = 1/(1+L)
40

GAM/W1
T=L/(1+L)
GAM*G/W2

Singular Values (dB)

20

-20

-40

-60

-80
-4
10

Input:
-2

10

10

10

10

10

G Nominal Plant Model

Frequency (rad/sec)

EX:
s=zpk('s'); G=(s-1)/(s+1);
W1=0.1*(s+100)/(100*s+1); W2=0.1; W3=[];
P=augw(G,W1,W2,W3);
[K,CL,GAM]=hinfsyn(P); [K2,CL2,GAM2]=h2syn(P);
L=G*K; S=inv(1+L); T=1-S;
sigma(S,'k',GAM/W1,'k-.',T,'r',GAM*G/W2,'r-.')

April 2006

W1 weight for the error signal

W2 weight for the control signal
W3 weight for the output signal

Output:
P augmented plant model

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[gopt,h2opt,K,R,S] =
hinfmix(P,r,obj,region,dkbnd,tol)
Hinfmix() creates a suboptimal controller K(s) based on the
optimization of a mixed H2/ H criterion that optimizes the
following function:
subject to ||T || < gamma, ||
T2||2 < v. The closed-loop poles lie in some prescribed LMI region D.
Input Parameters:
P lmi object such as ss or tf.
R [z2, y, u]
Obj [gamma, v, alpha, beta]
Region identifies the pole placement
region. Default is the open LHP.

Output Parameters:

Dkbnd set bound on norm of controller feed Gopt - guaranteed Hinf performance
through matrix DK.
H2opt guaranteed H2 performance
K Controller K(s) coefficients
Tol tolerance for the trade-off parameter
R,S optimal values of the LMI objects.

April 2006

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90

[K,CL,GAM,INFO]=
H2SYN(P,NMEAS,NCON)
H2syn() computes a stabilizing LTI/SS controller K for a partitioned
plant P(s).
Input Parameters:
P LTI/SS plant model
Nmeas B2 column size
Ncon C2 row size
Output Parameters:
K vector of Feedback Controller
Coefficients

Plant Partitioning (if done by mktito(),

nmeas and ncon can be omitted):

CL Closed loop system matrix

B1 Inputs are disturbances

Gam the H2 norm of the closed loop

system

B2 Inputs are control signals

Info structure containing additional

information.

C2 Outputs are inputs to control K

April 2006

C1 Outputs are errors to be minimized

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[K,CL,GAM,INFO] =
hinfsyn(P,NMEAS,NCON)
Hinfsyn() creates an optimal h-inifinity controller for a partitioned plant
matrix P.
Input Parameters:
P Partitioned plant matrix
Nmeas row size of the C2 matrix
Ncon column size of the B2 matrix
Output Parameters:
K controller coefficient vector
CL closed loop system matrix
Gam H-inifinity norm for the closed
loop system
Info - structure containing additional
information

April 2006

Plant Partitioning (if done by mktito(), nmeas and

ncon can be omitted):
B1 Inputs are disturbances
B2 Inputs are control signals
C1 Outputs are errors to be minimized
C2 Outputs are inputs to control K

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[K,GAM]=sdhinfsyn(P,NMEAS,NCON)
Sdhinfsyn() synthesizes a sampled data H-infinity controller.

Input Parameters:
P partitioned system matrix

Where:

Nmeas row size of C2

NCon column size of B2
Output parameters:
K H infinity controller coefficients
Gam H infinity norm cost for the system

April 2006

Plant Partitioning:
B1 Inputs are disturbances
B2 Inputs are control signals
C1 Outputs are errors to be minimized
C2 Outputs are inputs to control K

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[K,CL,GAM,INFO]=
loopsyn(G,Gd,RANGE)
Loopsyn() is an H infinity optimal way for loopshaping controller
synthisis.
Input Parameters:

Singular Values

50

G LTI plant

40

Singular Values (dB)

30

Gd desired loop shape

20

Range [Wmin,Wmax] desired loop

shaping frequency range. (10*Wmin
<= Wmax)

10
0
-10
-20

Output Parameters:

-30
-40
-1
10

10

10

K Controller Coefficient vector

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

CL Closed Loop System Matrix

EX:
rand('seed',0);randn('seed',0);
s=tf('s'); w0=5; Gd=5/s;
G=((s-10)/(s+100))*rss(3,4,5);
[K,CL,GAM,INFO]=loopsyn(G,Gd);
sigma(G*K,'r',Gd*GAM,'k-.',Gd/GAM,'k-.',{.1,100})

April 2006

Gam H infinity norm for the

closed loop system
Info structure containing additional
information.

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[K,SVL,W1] =
ltrsyn(G,F,XI,THETA,RHO)
Ltrsyn() computes a reconstructed-state output-feedback controller K for LTI
plant G using Kalman filtering to asymptotically recover the lost states.
Input Parameters:
G LTI System matrix
F - LQ full-state-feedback gain matrix
XI plant noise intensity
Theta sensor noise intensity
Rho vector containing a set of recovery
gains
Output Parameters:
K controller coefficient vector
Svl sigma plot data for recovered system
W1 - frequencies for SVL plots

April 2006

EX:
s=tf('s');G=ss(1e4/((s+1)*(s+10)*(s+100)));
[A,B,C,D]=ssdata(G);
F=lqr(A,B,C'*C,eye(size(B,2)));
L=ss(A,B,F,0*F*B);
XI=100*C'*C; THETA=eye(size(C,1));
RHO=[1e3,1e6,1e9,1e12];W=logspace(-2,2);
nyquist(L,'k-.');hold;
[K,SVL,W1]=ltrsyn(G,F,XI,THETA,RHO,W);

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[K,CL,GAM,INFO]=
mixsyn(G,W1,W2,W3)
Mixsyn() is H-infinity mixed-sensitivity synthesis method for robust
control loopshaping design.

Input Parameters:
G LTI system
W1,W2,W3 Weighting matricies
associated with S(s), R(s) and T(s)

Mixsyn() creates the h-infinity controller

based on the sensitivity function S(s)
and the complimentatry sensitivitiy T(s)
function according to the weighting
matricies W1, W2, W3.;
April 2006

Output Parameters:
K Controller Coefficient vector
CL Closed Loop System Matrix
Gam H infinity norm for the closed
loop system
Info structure containing additional
information.

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[K,CL,GAM,INFO]=
ncfsyn(G,W1,W2)
Ncfsyn() is a normalized coprime factorization based parameterized
controller synthisis using the Glover-McFarlane method for loopshaping.
Input Parameters:

Singular Values

60
40

G LTI plant model

Singular Values (dB)

20

W1,W2 Pre and Post compensator

to give Gd = W1GW2 a good high
frequency and low frequency response

0
-20
-40
-60

Output Parameters:

-80

EX:

-100
-2
10

-1

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

s=zpk('s');
G=(s-1)/(s+1)^2;
W1=0.5/s;
[K,CL,GAM]=ncfsyn(G,W1);
sigma(G*K,'r',G*W1,'r-.',G*W1*GAM,'k-.',G*
W1/GAM,'k-.')

April 2006

K controller coefficient vector

10

CL closed loop system matrix

Gam H infinity optimal cost
Info structure containing additional
information
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sys = mkfilter(fc,ord,type,psbndr)

Fc cutoff frequency of the filter

Ord order of the filter

-50
-100
180
90
0
-5
10

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

'butterw- Butterworth filter

cheby - Chebyshev filter
'bessel - Bessel filter
'rc - Series of resistor/ capacitor
filters
Psbndr - the magnitude of the passband

Sys Designed filter

April 2006

50

-50
0
-45
0

Frequency (rad/sec)

-50
0
-45
0

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

RC filter

10

Chebyshev

Bode Diagram

-90
-2
10

Bode Diagram

50

-90
-2
10
Butterw orth

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Type type of the filter.

Output:

Bode Diagram

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

Input:

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

Phase (deg) Magnitude (dB)

Mkfilter() returns a single-input, single-output analog low pass filter

sys as an ss object.

Bode Diagram

0
-100
-200
0
-180
-360

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

EX:
butw = mkfilter(2,4,'butterw');
cheb = mkfilter(4,4,'cheby',0.5);
rc = mkfilter(1,4,'rc');
bode(butw,'-',cheb,'--',rc,'-.')

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Mu-synthesis
Mu-synthesis functions enable the synthesis of robust optimal
controllers. Approximation tools for this type of design are shown
below:
1. Cmsclsyn() approximately solves the constant-matrix, upper bound synthesis problem.
2. Dksyn() synthesizes a robust controller via D-K iteration which is an
approximation to -synthesis control design.
3. Dkitopt() creates a dkitopt object called options with specific values
assigned to certain properties.
4. Drawmag() interactively uses the mouse in the plot window to create pts
and sysout, which approximately fits the frequency response (magnitude) in
pts.
5. Fitfrd() fits D-scaling frequency response data with state-space model.
6. Fitmagfrd() fits frequency response magnitude data with a stable, minimumphase state-space model.
April 2006

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[qopt,bnd] =
cmsclsyn(R,U,V,BlockStructure);
Cmsclsyn() approximately solves the constant-matrix, upper bound -synthesis
problem by minimization,
for given matrices
applies to constant matrix data in R, U, and V.

and

. This

Input:

Output:

R,U,V Constant matrices of

appropriate structure

Qopt - the optimum value of Q

BlockStructure a matrix
specifying the perturbation
blockstructure as defined for
mussv.

April 2006

Bnd - the upper bound of

mussv(R+U*Q*V,BLK)

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[k,clp,bnd] = dksyn(p,nmeas,ncont)
Dksyn() synthesizes a robust controller via D-K iteration which is
an approximation to -synthesis control design.

Input:
P Partitioned plant matrix
Nmeas row size of the C2 matrix
Ncon column size of the B2 matrix
Output:
K synthesized controller coefficients
Clp Closed loop system
Bnd robust performance bounds on
the closed loop system
April 2006

Nathan Sorensen
Kedrick Black

EX:
G = tf(1,[1 -1]);
Wu = 0.25*tf([1/2 1],[1/32 1]);
InputUnc = ultidyn('InputUnc',[1 1]);
Gpert = G*(1+InputUnc*Wu);
Wp = tf([1/4 0.6],[1 0.006]);
P = [Wp; 1 ]*[1 Gpert];
[K,clp,bnd1] = dksyn(P,1,1);
P = [Wp; 1 ]*[1 Gpert];
[K,clp,bnd2] = dksyn(P,1,1);
bnd1 =0.6768
101
bnd2 =0.6768

options =
dkitopt('name1',value1,'name2',value2,...)
Dkitopt() creates a dkitopt object called options with specific values
assigned to certain properties.

April 2006

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[sysout,pts] = drawmag(data)

interactively uses the mouse in the plot window to create pts and sysout, which
approximately fits the frequency response (magnitude) in pts
data: Either a frequency response object that is plotted as a reference, or a
constant matrix of the form [xmin xmax ymin ymax] specifying the plot window on
the data.
sysoutStable: minimum-phase ss object that approximately fits, in magnitude, the
pts data
ptsFrequency: response of points
While drawmag is running, all interaction with the program is through the mouse
and/or the keyboard

Examples of commands

See help file for more info

Clicking the mouse

Typing r
Typing integers 0 9
Typing w
Typing p
Typing k

April 2006

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B = fitfrd(A,N)

Fit D-scaling frequency response data with state-space model

state-space object with state dimension N, where A is an frd object and N is
a nonnegative integer
The frequency response of B closely matches the D-scale frequency
response data in A
A must have either 1 row or 1 column, although it need not be 1-by-1

Example
sys = tf([1 2 2],[1 2.5 1.5])*tf(1,[1 0.1]);
sys = sys*tf([1 3.75 3.5],[1 2.5 13]);
omeg = logspace(-1,1);
sysg = frd(sys,omeg);
bode(sysg,'r-');
b1 = fitfrd(sysg,1);
b3 = fitfrd(sysg,3);
b1g = frd(b1,omeg);
b3g = frd(b3,omeg);
bode(sysg,'r-',b1g,'k:',b3g,'b-.')

April 2006

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B = fitmagfrd(A,N)
Fit frequency response magnitude data with a stable, minimum-phase
state-space model
a stable, minimum-phase ss object, with state-dimension N, whose
frequency response magnitude closely matches the magnitude data in A
A is a 1-by-1 frd object, and N is a nonnegative integer
Example
sys = tf([1 2 2],[1 2.5 1.5])*tf(1,[1 0.1]);
sys = sys*tf([1 3.75 3.5],[1 2.5 13]);
omeg = logspace(-1,1);
sysg = abs(frd(sys,omeg));
bodemag(sysg,'r');
ord = 3;
b1 = fitmagfrd(sysg,ord);
b1g = frd(b1,omeg);
bodemag(sysg,'r',b1g,'k:');

April 2006

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Sampled Data Systems

The synthesis of robust optimal controllers with sampled data
systems can be analyzed using the following functions.
1. Sdhinfnorm() computes the L2 induced norm of a continuous-time LTI plant,
sdsys, in feedback with a discrete-time controller, k, connected through an
ideal sampler and a zero-order hold.
2. Sdlsim() plots the time response of the hybrid feedback system. lft(p,k), is
forced by the continuous input signal described by w and t.

April 2006

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[gaml,gamu] =
sdhinfnorm(sdsys,k,delay)
Sdhinfnorm() computes the L2 induced norm of a continuous-time
LTI plant, sdsys, in feedback with a discrete-time controller, k,
connected through an ideal sampler and a zero-order hold.

Input:

Output:

Sdsys a strictly proper partitioned

plant model, such that the constant
feedback gain is be zero

Gamu - upper bound on the

induced L2 norm of the sampleddata closed-loop system

Gaml - lower bound on the

induced L2 norm of the sampledDelay controller
computational delay
April 2006
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data closed-loop system 107
time
Kedrick Black
K feedback controller gain matrix

Sdhinfnorm() Example
p = ss(tf(30,[1 30])*tf([1],[1 0]));
k = ss(tf(4,[1 4]));
cl = feedback(p,k);
norm(cl,'inf')
ans = 1
kd = c2d(k,0.75,'zoh');
[gu,gl] = sdhinfnorm([1; 1]*p*[1 1],-kd);
[gu gl]
ans = 3.7908 3.7929
kd = c2d(k,0.2,'zoh');
[gu,gl] = sdhinfnorm([1; 1]*p*[1 1],-kd);
[gu gl]
ans = 1.0044 1.0049
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sdlsim(p,k,w,t,tf,x0,z0,int)
Sdlsim() plots the time response of the hybrid feedback system.
lft(p,k), is forced by the continuous input signal described by w and t.
Input:
P - a continuous-time LTI system
K a discrete-time LTI system with a
specified sampling time
W,T input forcing functions
Tf simulation end time
X0 - initial state vector of p, at time t(1)
Z0 - initial state vector of k, at time t(1)
Int - the continuous-time integration
step size
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Sdlsim() example cont:

Step response: disturbance (dashed) & output (solid)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8

EX:
P = tf(1,[1, 1e-5,0]);
T = 1.0/20;
C = ss([-1.5 T/4; -2/T -.5],[ .5 2;1/T
1/T],...
[-1/T^2 -1.5/T], [1/T^2 0],T);
Pd = c2d(P,T,'zoh');
systemnames = 'Pd C';
inputvar = '[ref]';
outputvar = '[Pd]';
input_to_Pd = '[C]';
input_to_C = '[ref ; Pd]';
sysoutname = 'dclp';
cleanupsysic = 'yes';
sysic;

April 2006

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
Time: seconds

0.7

0.8

0.9

EX cont:
M2 = [0,1,1;1,0,0;0,1,1]*blkdiag(1,1,P);
t = [0:.001:1]';
dist = 0.1*sin(41*t);
u = ones(size(t));
[y3,meas,act] = sdlsim(M2,C,[u dist],t,1);
plot(y3{:},'-',t,dist,'b--',t,u,'g-.')
xlabel('Time: seconds')
title('Step response: disturbance (dashed) & output
(solid)')

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Gain Scheduling
Gain scheduling is a useful tool for controller design. The Robust
Control Toolbox offers one function to optimally achieve this.
1. Hinfigs() synthesizes gain-scheduled H controllers.

April 2006

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[gopt,pdK,R,S] =
hinfgs(pdP,r,gmin,tol,tolred)
Synthesis of gain-scheduled H controllers
returns the optimal closed-loop quadratic
performance gopt and a polytopic description of
the gain-scheduled controller pdK
To test if a closed-loop quadratic performance
is achievable, set the third input gmin to
The arguments tol and tolred control the
required relative accuracy on gopt and the
threshold for order reduction
also returns solutions R, S of the characteristic
LMI system
April 2006

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Synthesis Supporting Utilities

The following functions are useful in setting up systems for
controller synthesis:

1. Bilin() gives the multivariable bilinear transform of frequency (s or z).

2. Mktito() adds TITO (two-input-two-output) partitioning to LTI system SYS,
assigning OutputGroup and InputGroup properties.
3. Sectf() gives the state-space sector bilinear transformation.
4. Skewdec() forms an m-by-m skew-symmetric matrix.
5. Symdec() forms an m-by-m symmetric matrix.

April 2006

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GT = bilin(G,VERS,METHOD,AUG)

Multivariable bilinear transform of frequency (s or z)

bilin computes the effect on a system of the frequency-variable substitution
The variable VERS denotes the transformation direction: VERS= 1, forward
transform or VERS=-1, reverse transform
computes several state-space bilinear transformations such as backward
rectangular, etc., based on the METHOD you select

April 2006

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SYS=mktito(SYS,NMEAS,NCONT)
Mktito() adds TITO (two-input-two-output) partitioning to LTI system SYS,
assigning OutputGroup and InputGroup properties.

EX:
P=rss(2,4,5); P=mktito(P,2,2);
disp(P.OutputGroup);
disp(P.InputGroup);
Y1: [1 2]
Y2: [3 4]
U1: [1 2 3]
U2: [4 5]

April 2006

Plant Partitioning:
B1 Inputs are disturbances
B2 Inputs are control signals
C1 Outputs are errors to be minimized
C2 Outputs are inputs to control K
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[G,T] = sectf(F,SECF,SECG)

State-space sector bilinear transformation

computes a linear fractional transform T such that the system lft(F,K) is in
sector SECF if and only if the system lft(G,K) is in sector SECG where
G=lft(T,F,NU,NY) where NU and NY are the dimensions of uT2 and yT2,
respectively

April 2006

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116

x = skewdec(m,n)
Skewdec() forms the m-by-m skew-symmetric matrix:

NOTE: This function is useful to define skew-symmetric matrix variables. In this

case, set n to the number of decision variables already used.

April 2006

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x = symdec(m,n)
Symdec() forms an m-by-m symmetric matrix of the form:

NOTE: This function is useful to define symmetric matrix variables. n is the

number of decision variables.

April 2006

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118

LMIs in the Robust Control Toolbox

The Robust Control Toolbox LMI functionality serves two
purposes:
Provide state-of-the-art tools for the LMI-based analysis and
design of robust control systems
Offer a flexible and user-friendly environment to specify and
solve general LMI problems (the LMI Lab)
Examples of LMI-based analysis and design tools include:
Functions to analyze the robust stability and performance of
uncertain systems with varying parameters (popov, quadstab,
quadperf ...)
Functions to design robust control with a mix of H2, H, and
pole placement objectives (h2hinfsyn)
Functions for synthesizing robust gain-scheduled H
controllers (hinfgs)
April 2006

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Linear Matrix Inequalities

A linear matrix inequality (LMI) is any constraint of the form

where x = (x1, . . . , xN) is a vector of unknown scalars (the decision or

optimization variables) A0, . . . , AN are given symmetric matrices < 0 stands
for "negative definite," i.e., the largest eigenvalue of A(x) is negative
Note that the constraints A(x) > 0 and A(x) < B(x) are special cases of (1-1)
since they can be rewritten as -A(x) < 0 and A(x) - B(x) < 0, respectively.
April 2006

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Specifying/Modifying LMI Systems

LMI Systems can be specified and modified in various ways briefly
outlined below
The specification of an LMI system involves two steps:
1. Declare the dimensions and structure of each matrix variable X1, . . . , XK.
2. Describe the term content of each LMI.
This process creates the so-called internal representation of the LMI system. This
computer description of the problem is used by the LMI solvers and in all
subsequent manipulations of the LMI system. It is stored as a single vector called
LMISYS.
There are two ways of generating the internal description of a given LMI system:
1. by a sequence of lmivar/lmiterm commands that build it incrementally
2. via the LMI Editor lmiedit where LMIs can be specified directly as symbolic matrix
expressions. Though somewhat less flexible and powerful than the commandbased description, the LMI Editor is more straightforward to use, hence particularly
well-suited for beginners.
April 2006

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121

Specification Functions
The following functions are used for the LMI Specificiation:
1. Lmiedit is a graphical user interface for the symbolic specification of
LMI problems.
2. Setlmis() is a command to be used to initialize or add to an internal
representation for an lmi.
3. Lmivar() defines a new matrix variable X in the LMI system currently
described.
4. Lmiterm() specifies the term content of an LMI one term at a time.
5. Newlmi adds a new LMI to the LMI system currently described and
returns an identifier tag for this LMI.
6. Getlmis returns the internal representation of a lmi system declared
using lmivars() and lmiterm().

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lmiedit
Lmiedit is a graphical user interface for the symbolic specification
of LMI problems.
Instructions:

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1.

Give it a name (top of the window).

2.

Declare each matrix variable (name and

structure) in the upper half of the
window. The structure is characterized
by its type (S for symmetric block
diagonal, R for unstructured, and G for
other structures) and by an additional
structure matrix similar to the second
input argument of lmivar. Please use one
line per matrix variable in the text editing
areas.

3.

Specify the LMIs as MATLAB

expressions in the lower half of the
window. An LMI can stretch over several
lines. However, do not specify more than
one LMI per line.

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setlmis(lmi)
Setlmis() is a command to be used to initialize or add to an
internal representation for an lmi.

Two Uses:
1. setlmis([ ]) - used to initialize an internal representation for an lmi
to be followed by lmivar and lmiterm.
2. setlmis(lmi0) adds to an existing lmi where lmi0 is the internal
representation of a lmi. (Subsequent lmivar and lmiterm
commands will then add new variables and terms to the initial
LMI system lmi0.)
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X = lmivar(type,struct)
Lmivar() defines a new matrix variable X in the LMI system
currently described.
Input:

EX:
setlmis([])
X1 = lmivar(1,[3 1]) % Type 1
X2 = lmivar(2,[2 4]) % Type 2 of dim. 2x4
X3 = lmivar(1,[5 1;1 0;2 0]) % Type 1

Type - selects among available types of

variables and the second argument
Options:
1- Symmetric matrices with a blockdiagonal structure
2 - Full m-by-n rectangular matrix
3 - Other structures
Struct - gives further information on the
structure of X depending on its type
Ouput:
X Matrix variable in LMI system

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lmiterm(termID,A,B,flag)
Lmiterm() specifies the term content of an LMI one term at a time.

EX:
lmiterm([1 1 1 X2],2*A,A') % 2*A*X2*A'
lmiterm([1 1 1 x3],-1,E) % -x3*E
lmiterm([1 1 1 0],D*D') % D*D'
lmiterm([1 2 1 -X1],1,B) % X1'*B
lmiterm([1 2 2 0],-1) % -I
lmiterm([-1 0 0 0],M) % outer factor M
lmiterm([-1 1 1 X1],C,C','s') %
C*X1*C'+C*X1'*C'
lmiterm([-1 2 2 X2],-f,1) % -f*X2

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tag = newlmi
Newlmi adds a new LMI to the LMI system currently described and
returns an identifier tag for this LMI. (Tagging LMIs is optional and
only meant to facilitate code development and readability.)
Purpose:
To give individual names to lmis so that they
can be easily distinguished in code.
Use:
When parts of LMIs are deleted from a LMI,
identifiers help to identify the remaining parts
of the system.

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lmisys = getlmis
Getlmis returns the internal representation of a lmi system
declared using lmivars() and lmiterm(). This can then be used in
any LMI solver or processing function.

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LMI Characteristics
LMI System characteristics can be determined using the following
functions:
1. Lmiinfo() provides qualitative information about the system of LMIs lmisys.
2. Lminbr returns the number k of linear matrix inequalities in the LMI problem
described in lmisys.
3. Matnbr() returns the number K of matrix variables in the LMI problem described by
lmisys.
4. Decnbr() returns the number ndec of decision variables (free scalar variables) in
the LMI problem described in lmisys.
5. Dec2mat() is a function that, given values of the decision variables, derives the
corresponding values of the matrix variables.

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LMI Characteristics cont:

6. Mat2dec() returns the corresponding value decvec of the vector of decision
variables if given an LMI system with variables X1, . . ., XK given values of
x1,...,xk.
7. DecX() expresses the entries of a matrix variable X in terms of the decision
variables x1, . . ., xN.

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lmiinfo(lmisys)
Lmiinfo() provides qualitative information about the system of LMIs
lmisys. This includes the type and structure of the matrix variables,
the number of diagonal blocks in the inner factors, and the term
content of each block.
EX:

lmiinfo(lmis)
LMI ORACLE
------This is a system of 1 LMI with 3 variable matrices
Do you want information on
(v) matrix variables (l) LMIs (q) quit?> v
Which variable matrix (enter its index k between 1 and 3) ? 1
X1 is a 2x2 symmetric block diagonal matrix
its (1,1)-block is a full block of size 2
-------

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LMI Info Example Cont:

This is a system of 1 LMI with 3 variable matrices
Do you want information on
(v) matrix variables (l) LMIs (q) quit?> l
Which LMI (enter its number k between 1 and 1) ? 1
This LMI is of the form
0 < R(x)
where the inner factor(s) has 2 diagonal block(s)
Do you want info on the right inner factor ?
(w) whole factor (b) only one block
(o) other LMI (t) back to top level?> w
Info about the right inner factor
block (1,1) : I + a1*X1 + A2*X2*B2 + B2'*X2'*A2'
block (2,1) : A3*X1
block (2,2) : x3*A4
(w) whole factor (b) only one block
(o) other LMI (t) back to top level

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k = lminbr(lmisys)
Lminbr returns the number k of linear matrix inequalities in the LMI
problem described in lmisys.

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K = matnbr(lmisys)
Matnbr() returns the number K of matrix variables in the LMI
problem described by lmisys.

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ndec = decnbr(lmisys)
Decnbr() returns the number ndec of decision variables (free scalar
variables) in the LMI problem described in lmisys.
Input:
Lmisys System of LMIs

Output:
Ndec - the length of the vector
of decision variables.

EX:
For an LMI system LMIs with
two matrix variables X and Y
such that X is symmetric
block diagonal with one 2by-2 full block, and one 2-by2 scalar block Y is 2-by-3
rectangular,
the number of decision
variables is:
ndec = decnbr(LMIs)
ndec = 10

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valX = dec2mat(lmisys,decvars,X)
Dec2mat() is a function that, given values of the decision variables,
derives the corresponding values of the matrix variables.
Input:

Output:

Lmisys System of LMIs

Decvars - the vector of decision
variables

ValX Values of the matrix variable

with the identifier X.

X - the matrix variable identifier with

which the function computes valX

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decvec =
mat2dec(lmisys,X1,X2,X3,...)
Mat2dec() returns the corresponding value decvec of the vector of
decision variables if given an LMI system with variables X1, . . ., XK
given values of x1,...,xk.
Input:

EX:

Lmisys System of LMIs

Given

X1,..,Xn system matrix variables

evaluated at x1,,xn

Output:
Decvec - vector of decision variables

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decv = mat2dec(lmisys,X0,Y0)
decv = [ 1 3 -1 5 1 2 3
4 5 6]

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decX = decinfo(lmisys,X)
DecX() expresses the entries of a matrix variable X in terms of the
decision variables x1, . . ., xN.
EX:

setlmis([])
X = lmivar(1,[3 0])
Y = lmivar(2,[2 1])
:
:
lmis = getlmis
dX = decinfo(lmis,X)
dX =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
dY = decinfo(lmis,Y)
dY =
2
3

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Input:
Lmisys System of LMIs
X - each entry of X is either a hard
zero, some decision variable xn, or its
opposite xn

Output:
DecX - clarifies the structure of X as
well as its entry-wise dependence on
x1, . . ., xN
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LMI Solvers
LMI solvers are provided for the following three generic optimization
problems
Feasibility problem
Find x RN (or equivalently matrices X1, . . . , XK with prescribed structure) that
satisfies the LMI system
A(x) < B(x)
The corresponding solver is called feasp. Minimization of a linear objective under
LMI constraints
Minimize cTx over x RN subject to A(x) < B(x)
The corresponding solver is called mincx. Generalized eigenvalue minimization
problem
Minimize over x RN subject to
C(x) < D(x)
0 < B(x)
A(x) < B(x).
The corresponding solver is called gevp.
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[tmin,xfeas] =
feasp(lmisys,options,target)
Feasp() computes a solution xfeas (if any) of the system of LMIs
described by lmisys.
Input:

Lmisys LMI system to solve

Options zeros set to default parameters

1 not used
2 - sets the maximum number of
iterations (100 by default)

Output:

3 - resets the feasibility radius

Tmin Constraints are feasible

if tmin<=0 and strictly feasible if
tmin<0

Xfeas - a solution in terms of the

decision variables

4 - helps speed up termination

5 a 1 turns off the trace of execution of
the optimization procedure. 0 is on.

Target - sets a target value for tmin

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Feasp() Example
EX:
setlmis([])
p = lmivar(1,[2 1])
lmiterm([1 1 1 p],1,a1,'s') % LMI #1
lmiterm([2 1 1 p],1,a2,'s') % LMI #2
lmiterm([3 1 1 p],1,a3,'s') % LMI #3
lmiterm([-4 1 1 p],1,1) % LMI #4: P
lmiterm([4 1 1 0],1) % LMI #4: I
lmis = getlmis
[tmin,xfeas] = feasp(lmis)
tmin = -3.1363
P = dec2mat(lmis,xfeas,p)

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[copt,xopt] =
mincx(lmisys,c,options,xinit,target)
Mincx() solves the convex program
where x represents a vector of scalar
decision variables.

Input:
Lmisys System of LMIs

Output:
Copt the global minimum for the
objective cTx
Xopt - the minimizing value of the
vector of decision variables

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C vector the same length as x and defined by

defcnbr() or defcx()
Options zeros set to default parameters
1 not used
2 - sets the maximum number of iterations
(100 by default)
3 - resets the feasibility radius
4 - helps speed up termination
5 a 1 turns off the trace of execution of
the optimization procedure. 0 is on.
Xinit intial guess for x
Target - sets a target value for tmin

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[lopt,xopt] = gevp(lmisys,nlfc)
Gevp() solves a generalized eigenvalue minimization problem described by:
Minimize
LMIs.

subject to C(x) < D(x) and A(x) <

B(x) > 0 denote systems of

EX:

Output:

setlmis([]);
p = lmivar(1,[2 1])

Lopt - the global minimum

lemiterm([1 1 1 0],1) % P > I : I

lemiterm([-1 1 1 p],1,1) % P > I : P
lemiterm([2 1 1 p],1,a1,'s') % LFC # 1 (lhs)
lemiterm([-2 1 1 p],1,1) % LFC # 1 (rhs)
lemiterm([3 1 1 p],1,a2,'s') % LFC # 2 (lhs)
lemiterm([-3 1 1 p],1,1) % LFC # 2 (rhs)
lemiterm([4 1 1 p],1,a3,'s') % LFC # 3 (lhs)
lemiterm([-4 1 1 p],1,1) % LFC # 3 (rhs)
lmis = getlmis

Xopt - the minimizing value of

the vector of decision variables
x.

[alpha,popt]=gevp(lmis,3)
alpha = -0.122

Nlfc number of linear

fractional constraints

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Input:
Lmisys LMI System

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[V1,...,Vk] =
defcx(lmisys,n,X1,...,Xk)
Defcx() is useful to derive the c vector needed by mincx when the objective
is expressed in terms of the matrix variables.
Input:
Lmisys system of LMIs
N the number of the nth decision
variable

Output:
V1,,Vk value of these variables
when the n-th decision variable is set to
one and all others to zero.

X1,,Xk identifiers of the matrix

variables involved in this objective

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LMI Solution Validation

Once a solution to an LMI system is obtained, the following functions
assist in the validation of the given solution.

1. Evallmi() evaluates all LMI constraints for a particular instance determined by

decvars of the vector of decision variables.
2. Showlmi() evaluates all variable terms in a system of LMIs for given values of
the decision variables.

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evalsys = evallmi(lmisys,decvars)
Evallmi() evaluates all LMI constraints for a particular instance
determined by decvars of the vector of decision variables.
EX: Find X s.t. ATXA - X + I < 0
setlmis([])
X = lmivar(1,[2 1]) % full symmetric X
lmiterm([1 1 1 X],A',A) % LMI #1: A'*X*A
lmiterm([1 1 1 X],-1,1) % LMI #1: -X
lmiterm([1 1 1 0],1) % LMI #1: I
lmiterm([-2 1 1 X],1,1) % LMI #2: X
lmis = getlmis
[tmin,xfeas] = feasp(lmis)
tmin = -4.7117e+00
xfeas' = [1.1029e+02 -1.1519e+01
1.1942e+02]
evals = evallmi(lmis,xfeas)
[lhs1,rhs1] = showlmi(evals,1)
[lhs2,rhs2] = showlmi(evals,2)
eig(lhs1-rhs1)
ans = -8.2229e+01, -5.8163e+01

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Input:
Lmisys System of LMIs
Decvars particular instance of
the decision variables

Output:
Evalsys - LMI system containing
only constant terms
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[lhs,rhs] = showlmi(evalsys,n)
Showlmi() evaluates all variable terms in a system of LMIs for
given values of the decision variables.

Input:
Evalsys - the output of evallmi
N the number of lmis

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Output:
Lhs, Rhs - The left- and right-hand
sides of the n-th LMI constant
matrices

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LMI Modification
Once an LMI is formally declared, the following functions allow for
the modification of LMI objects.

1. Dellmi() deletes the nth LMI from the system of LMIs described in
lmisys. The updated system is returned in newsys.
2. Delmvar() removes the matrix variable X with identifier X from the list of
variables defined in lmisys.
3. Setmvar() sets the matrix variable X with identifier X to the value Xval.

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newsys = dellmi(lmisys,n)
Dellmi() deletes the nth LMI from the system of LMIs described in lmisys. The
updated system is returned in newsys.
EX:
Input:
Suppose that the following is an LMI
Lmisys system of LMIs

System:

N the number of the deletion

LMI

Output:

Then give the command:

Newsys new LMI system

after the nth LMI is deleted.

lmis = dellmi(lmisys,LMI2)

LMIS is then reduced to:

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newsys = delmvar(lmisys,X)
Delmvar() removes the matrix variable X with identifier X from the list
of variables defined in lmisys.
EX:

Input:

Consider the LMI:

Lmisys system of LMIs

X name of LMI to be deleted

Ouput:
lmisys = delmvar(lmisys,X)
Gives the system:

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Newsys system of LMIs after

the LMI X has been deleted

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newsys = setmvar(lmisys,X,Xval)
Setmvar() sets the matrix variable X with identifier X to the value
Xval.
EX:
Input:
Lmisys system of LMIs
X name of an LMI in Lmisys
Xval value to evaluate X at

Output
Newsys LMI system after X is
evaluated at Xval.

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Consider the system:

and the problem of finding a stabilizing statefeedback law u = Kx where K is an unknown
matrix.
This LMI is entered by the commands:
n = size(A,1) % number of states
ncon = size(B,2) % number of inputs
setlmis([])
P = lmivar(1,[n 1]) % P full symmetric
Y = lmivar(2,[ncon n]) % Y rectangular
lmiterm([1 1 1 P],A,1,'s') % AP+PA'
lmiterm([1 1 1 Y],B,1,'s') % BY+Y'B'
lmiterm([1 1 1 0],1) % I
lmis = getlmis
news = setmvar(lmis,P,1)
[tmin,xfeas] = feasp(news)
Y = dec2mat(news,xfeas,Y)
The computed Y is feasible whenever tmin <
0.
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LMI Supporting Functions

Within the LMI functionality, various functions are employed to
assist in the creation and analysis of the LMI system.

1. Matnbr() matnbr returns the number K of matrix variables in the LMI

problem described by lmisys.
2. Lmireg() is an interactive facility to specify the LMI regions involved in
multi-objective H infinity synthesis with pole placement constraints.

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K = matnbr(lmisys)
Matnbr() matnbr returns the number K of matrix variables in the
LMI problem described by lmisys

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region = lmireg
Lmireg() is an interactive facility to specify the LMI regions involved in
multi-objective H infinity synthesis with pole placement constraints.

Recall that an LMI region is any convex subset D of the complex

plane that can be characterized by an LMI in z and , i.e.,

for some fixed real matrices M and L = LT. This class of regions
encompasses half planes, strips, conic sectors, disks, ellipses, and
any intersection of the above.
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Plotting Functions
Various Plotting functions are useful with the Robust Control
Toolbox. Some of particular interest are shown here.

1. Loglog() is same as plot(...), except a logarithmic (base 10) scale is

used for the x-axis and y-axis.
2. Semilog() is same as plot(...), except a logarithmic (base 10) scale is
used for the x-axis.
3. Uplot() allows one to plot multiple frequency response objects and
doubles on the same graph.
4. Dmplot() plots the maximum allowable phase variation as a function of
the actual gain variation for a given disk gain margin diskgm.

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loglog(sys)

log-log scale plot of frd objects

same as plot, except a logarithmic (base 10) scale is used for both the X- and Yaxis

Example
omega = logspace(-2,2,40);
sys1 = tf(0.9,[.1 1])
sys1g = frd(sys1,omega);
sys2 = tf(0.9,[1 1])
sys2g = frd(sys2,omega);
sys3 = tf(0.9,[10 1])
sys3g = frd(sys3,omega);
loglog(abs(sys1g),abs(sys2g),'r+',sys3g.Freq,...
abs(sys3g.Resp(:)),'--');
Sys1:
0.9
--------0.1 s + 1
Sys2:
0.9
----s+1
Sys3:
0.9
-------10 s + 1

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semilogx(...) same as plot

Semilog scale plot of a frd object
same as plot(...), except a logarithmic
(base 10) scale is used for the x-axis

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uplot(type,G1,linetype,Xdata,Ydata,
linetype)

Plot multiple frequency response objects and doubles on the same graph

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Uplot example
Example
a1 = [-1,1;-1,-0.5];
b1 = [0;2]; c1 = [1,0]; d1 = 0;
sys1 = ss(a1,b1,c1,d1);
a2 = [-.1,1;-1,-0.05];
b2 = [1;1]; c2 = [-0.5,0]; d2 = 0.1;
sys2 = ss(a2,b2,c2,d2);
omega = logspace(-2,2,100);
sys1g = frd(sys1,omega);
omega2 = [ [0.05:0.1:1.5] [1.6:.5:20]
[0.9:0.01:1.1] ];
omega2 = sort(omega2);
sys2g = frd(sys2,omega2);
sys3 = rss(1,1,1);
rspot = frd(sys3,2);
uplot('liv,lm',sys1g,'b-.',rspot,'r-*',sys2g);
xlabel('log independent variable')
ylabel('log magnitude')
title('axis specification: liv,lm')

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dmplot(diskgm)
Dmplot() plots the maximum allowable phase variation as a function
of the actual gain variation for a given disk gain margin diskgm.
EX:
dmplot(1.414)

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Miscellaneous
This is a group of functions employed throughout the Robust Control
Toolbox that do not fit into any general category.
1. Rcond() creates an estimate for the reciprocal of the condition of the frd object
x in the 1-norm .
2. Schur() applies the schur command to frd objects.
3. Diag(x) puts x on the main diagonal of a matrix.
4. Genphase() fit SISO magnitude data with a real, rational, minimum-phase
transfer function.
5. Ssv() computes the singular value decomposition of an frd object.
6. Repmat() creates a large matrix B consisting of an M-by-N tiling of copies of
some matrix A.

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r = rcond(x)
is an estimate for the reciprocal of the
condition of the frd object x in the 1-norm
obtained by the LAPACK condition
estimator
operates on x.ReponseData of the x frd at
each frequency to construct r
If x is well conditioned, rcond(x) is near 1.0
If x is badly conditioned, rcond(x) is near
EPS
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[u,t] = schur(x)
applies the schur command to frd objects
operates on the x.ReponseData of the frd
object at each frequency point to construct
u and t
u and t are frd objects. x must be square

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v = diag(x)

If x is a vector of uncertain system models or matrices, diag(x) puts x on the

main diagonal
If x is a matrix of uncertain system models or matrices, diag(x) is the main
diagonal of v
diag(diag(x)) is a diagonal matrix of uncertain system models or matrices
Example
x = rss(3,4,1);
xg = frd(x,logspace(-2,2,80));
size(xg)
FRD model with 4 output(s) and 1 input(s), at 80 frequency
point(s).
mxg = diag(xg);
size(mxg)
FRD model with 4 output(s) and 4 input(s), at 80 frequency
point(s).
xxg = [xg(1:2,1) xg(3:4,1)];
m = diag(xxg);
size(m)
FRD model with 2 output(s) and 1 input(s), at 80 frequency
point(s).

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resp = genphase(d)
Fit single-input/single-output magnitude
data with a real, rational, minimum-phase
transfer function
uses the complex-cepstrum algorithm to
generate a complex frequency response
resp whose magnitude is equal to the real,
positive response d, but whose phase
corresponds to a stable, minimum-phase
function
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[U,S,V] = svd(X)
Singular value decomposition of an frd
object
produces a diagonal frd S that has the
same dimensions as X and includes
positive diagonal elements in decreasing
order
U and V are unitary matrices and frd
objects, such that X = U*S*V'
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B = repmat(A,M,N)

Replicate and tile an array

creates a large matrix B consisting of an M-by-N tiling of copies of A
Example
repmat(randumat(2,2),2,3)
repmat(ureal(`A',6),[4 2])
UMAT: 4 Rows, 6 Columns
BJVAD: real, nominal = 5.95, variability = [-3.97443 15.0948]%, 3
occurrences
FRHOD: complex, nominal = 3.34+5.95i, radius = 0.757, 3 occurrences
LAVLQ: complex, nominal = -2.16-8.33i, radius = 1.84, 2 occurrences
WNFRV: complex, nominal = 0, radius = 1.36, 2 occurrences
UMAT: 4 Rows, 2 Columns
A: real, nominal = 6, variability = [-1 1], 1 occurrence

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References
www.mathworks.com/
Robust Control Toolbox Tutorial

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