Introduction to Networks

A network consists of two or more entities

or objects sharing resources and
information.
A computer network consists of two or
more computing devices connected to each
other to share resources and information.
The network becomes a powerful tool when
computers communicate and share
resources with other computers on the
same network or entirely distinct networks.

Introduction to Networks
Computers on a network can act as a
client or a server.
A client is a computer that requests
for resources.
A server is a computer that controls
and provides access to resources.

Need for Networks

A computer that operates
independently from other computers
is called a stand-alone computer.
The process of printing or
transferring data from one system to
another using various storage
devices is called sneakernet.

Need for Networks

Enhance communication.
Share resources.
Facilitate centralized management.

Enhance Communication
Computer networks use electronic
mail (e-mail) as the choice for most
of the communication.
By using networks, information can
be sent to a larger audience in an
extremely fast and efficient manner.

Share Resources
A copy of data or application stored at a
single central location is shared over a
network.
Computer peripheral devices, referred to as
additional components, can be attached to a
computer and be shared in a network.

Share Resources
Peripheral devices include faxes,
modems, scanners, plotters, and any
other device that connects to the
computers.
Equipments having common
requirements can be shared in order
to reduce maintenance cost.

Share Resources
Important data can also be stored
centrally to make it accessible to
users, thereby saving storage space
on individual computers.
Computer applications, which take
up a considerable amount of storage
space, can be installed centrally on
the network, saving storage space.

Facilitate Centralized
Management
Networks are used to assist in
management tasks associated with
their own operation and
maintenance.
Using networks results in increased
efficiency and a resultant reduction
in maintenance costs.

Facilitate Centralized
Management
Software:
Software is a set of instructions or
programs that control the operation of a
computer.
Software can be installed at a central
location using servers, where the
installation files are made accessible
over the network.

Classification of Networks
Classification by network geography.
Classification by component roles.

Classification by Network
Geography
Networks are frequently classified
according to the geographical
boundaries spanned by the network
itself.
LAN, WAN, and MAN are the basic
types of classification, of which LAN
and WAN are frequently used.

Classification by Network
Geography
Local area network (LAN):
A LAN covers a relatively small area
such as a classroom, school, or a single
building.
LANs are inexpensive to install and also
provide higher speeds.

Classification by Network
Geography

Local area network

Classification by Network
Geography
Metropolitan area network (MAN):
A MAN spans the distance of a typical
metropolitan city.
The cost of installation and operation is
higher.
MANs use high-speed connections such
as fiber optics to achieve higher speeds.

Classification by Network
Geography

Metropolitan area network

Classification by Network
Geography
Wide area network (WAN):
WANs span a larger area than a single
city.
These use long distance
telecommunication networks for
connection, thereby increasing the cost.
The Internet is a good example of a
WAN.

Classification by Network
Geography

Wide area network

Classification by Component
Roles
Networks can also be classified
according to the roles that the
networked computers play in the
networks operation.
Peer-to-peer, server-based, and
client-based are the types of roles
into which networks are classified.

Classification by Component
Roles
Peer-to-peer:
In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal.
Each computer controls its own information and is capable of

functioning as either a client or a server depending upon the

requirement.
Peer-to-peer networks are inexpensive and easy to install.
They are popular as home networks and for use in small

companies.

Classification by Component
Roles
Peer-to-peer (continued):
Most operating systems come with builtin peer-to-peer networking capability.
The maximum number of peers that can
operate on a peer-to-peer network is
ten.
Each peer shares resources and allows
others open access to them.

Classification by Component
Roles
Peer-to-peer (continued):
Peer-to-peer networks become difficult
to manage when more security is added
to resources, since the users control
their security by password-protecting
shares.
Shares can be document folders,
printers, peripherals, and any other
resource that they control on their
computers.

Classification by Component
Roles

Peer-to-peer network

Classification by Component
Roles
Server-based:
A server-based network offers
centralized control and is designed for
secure operations.
In a server-based network, a dedicated
server controls the network.

Classification by Component
Roles
Server-based (continued):
A dedicated server is one that services
the network by storing data,
applications, resources, and also
provides access to resources required by
the client.
These servers can also control the
networks security from one centralized
location or share it with other specially
configured servers.

Classification by Component
Roles

Server-based network

Classification by Component
Roles
Client-based:
Client-based network servers process
requests from clients and return just the
results.
These networks take advantage of the
powerful processing capabilities of both
the client and the server.
Application servers and communications
servers are examples of client-based
networks.

Classification by Component
Roles

Client-based network

 Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:

Low cost
Simple to configure
User has full accessibility of the computer

Disadvantages of peer-to-peer
networks:
May have duplication in resources
Difficult to uphold security policy
Difficult to handle uneven loading

Where peer-to-peer network is

appropriate:

10 or less users
No specialized services required
Security is not an issue
Only limited growth in the foreseeable future

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Clients and Servers

Network Clients (Workstation)
Computers that request network resources or services

Network Servers
Computers that manage and provide network resources
and services to clients
Usually have more processing power, memory and hard
disk space than clients
Run Network Operating System that can manage not
only data, but also users, groups, security, and
applications on the network
Servers often have a more stringent requirement on
its performance and reliability

30

 Advantages of client/server networks

Facilitate resource sharing centrally administrate and
control
Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
Enhance security only administrator can have access
to Server
Support more users difficult to achieve with peer-topeer networks

Disadvantages of client/server
networks
High cost for Servers
Need expert to configure the network
Introduce a single point of failure to the system
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Transmission Media
Two main categories:
Guided wires, cables
Unguided wireless transmission, e.g. radio,
microwave, infrared, sound, sonar

We will concentrate on guided media here:

Twisted-Pair cables:
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cables
Coaxial cables
Fiber-optic cables
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Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)

Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical
protection)
A sample UTP cable with 5 unshielded twisted pairs of wires

Insulator

Metal
33

Shielded Twisted-Pair
(STP)
STP cables are similar to UTP cables,
except there is a metal foil or braidedmetal-mesh cover that encases each pair
of insulated wires

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Categories of UTP Cables

EIA classifies UTP cables according to the quality:
Category 1 the lowest quality, only good for voice,
mainly found in very old buildings, not recommended now
Category 2 good for voice and low data rates (up to
4Mbps for low-speed token ring networks)
Category 3 at least 3 twists per foot, for up to 10 Mbps
(common in phone networks in residential buildings)
Category 4 up to 16 Mbps (mainly for token rings)
Category 5 (or 5e) up to 100 Mbps (common for
networks targeted for high-speed data communications)
Category 6 more twists than Cat 5, up to 1 Gbps

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Coaxial Cables
In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry
signals of higher freq (100KHz500MHz)
than UTP cables
Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a
shield against noise and as the second
conductor that completes the circuit

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Topology 3 basic types

How so many computers are connected

together?
Bus Topology

Ring Topology

Star Topology
Hub

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 Bus Topology

Simple and low-cost

A single cable called a trunk (backbone, segment)
Only one computer can send messages at a time
Passive topology - computer only listen for, not
regenerate data

Star Topology
Each computer has a cable connected to a single point
More cabling, hence higher cost
All signals transmission through the hub; if down, entire
network down
Depending on the intelligence of hub, two or more
computers may send message at the same time
38

How to construct a network

with Bus / Star Topology?
Bus Topology

Coaxi
al
cable

Star Topology
BNC T-Connector

Network Card

39

 Ring Topology
Every computer serves as
T
Ac
k
a repeater to boost signals
Typical way to send data:
T
Token passing
only the computer who
T
gets the token can send
data
T Ac
Disadvantages
k
Difficult to add computers
More expensive
If one computer fails, whole network

dat
a

dat
a
T
T

Ac
dat
a
k

T
fails
T Ac
k

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Note

An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.

Note

The IPv4 addresses are unique

and universal.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

41

Note

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

42

Internet Protocol
Numbering scheme
Largest network of computers

What is an IP address
A way to identify machines on a network
A unique identifier

IP usage
Used to connect to another computer
Allows transfers of files and e-mail

IP structure
IP addresses consist of four sections
Each section is 8 bits long
Each section can range from 0 to 255
Written, for example, 128.35.0.72

IP structure
These four sections represent the
machine itself and the network it is
on
The network portion is assigned.
The host section is determined by
the network administrator

IP structure
5 Classes of IP address A B C D and E
Class A reserved for governments
Class B reserved for medium
companies
Class C reserved for small companies

IP structure
Class D are reserved for multicasting
Class E are reserved for future use

IP structure
Class A begins 1 to
126
Class B begins 128
to 191
Class C begins 192
to 223

Figure 5.6

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Finding the class of address

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Reserved addresses
Addresses beginning 127 are
reserved for loopback and internal
testing
xxx.0.0.0 reserved for network
address
xxx.255.255.255 reserved for
broadcast

IP Addresses
IP addresses are:
Unique
Global and Standardised
Essential

Subnetting - Why?
Division of local networks
Greater number of networks
Simplifies addressing

Subnetting - How
Bits borrowed from host field

Network

Network

Host

Host

Network

Network

Subnet

Host

Network

Network

Subnet

Subnet/Host

Subnetting -Example
130.5.0.0
- Network address
130.5.2.144 - Host address
255.255.255.0
- Subnet Mask
130.5.2.0
- Subnet

Figure 5.1

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Dotted-decimal notation

57

Figure 5.3

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Bitwise AND operation

58

Example 5.8

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

59

Figure 5.5

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Occupation of address space

60

Figure 5.5

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Occupation of address space

61

Figure 5.6

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Finding the class of address

62

Figure 5.7

Finding the class of an address using continuous checking

0
Class: A

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Start

0
Class: B

Class: C

63

1
0
Class: D

Class: E

Figure 5.15

Information extraction in classful addressing

netid

000 ... 0

First address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

64

Figure 5.15

Information extraction in classful addressing

netid

000 ... 0

First address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

65

 To convert from
binary to decimal,
use a simple chart.
Add the number
indicated for each 1
set in the binary
number.

128

128

64

32

32

16

0
168

Private & Special Address

Space
Address Space

Range of Addresses

10.0.0.0/8

10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0/19

172.16.0.0 through 172.31.0.0

192.168.0.0/16

192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255

Network Class

Beginning Digits in Binary

Range of Addresses

Class D
(Multicast)

11110x

224.0.0.0 through
239.255.255.255

Class E
(Experimental)

11111x

240.0.0.0 through ....