TOPIC 3

BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR
BJT~

EE201 Semiconductor Device

By the end of this class, students should be able to:

Understand the basic of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

# Draw physical structure and schematic symbols for BJT
# Describe basic transistor operation
# State that the BJT operates as an amplifier and as a
switch.
# Explain the characteristic curve and the operating
regions
of BJT.
# Relate the operating regions to BJT operating as an
amplifier and as a switch.

Know the method of connecting a transistor circuit and

its characteristics

Understand frequency response curve

Understand the classification of amplifier

Know other biasing techniques of common emitter

transistor configuration.

Transistor Background

Invented at Bell Laboratories in 1947.

John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Schockly
received Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 for Inventing
Transistors.
First application: telephone signal amplification
Replaced cumbersome and inefficient vacuum tubes
Transistors can now be found on a single silicon wafer in
most common electronic devices

Transistor Background
Model of First Transistor

What are Transistors?

Versatile three lead semiconductor devices whose

applications include electronic switching and modulation
(amplification)
Transistors are miniature electronic switches.
Configuration of circuit determines whether the transistor
will serve a switch and amplifier
Building blocks of the microprocessor, which is the brain of
the computer.
Have two operating positions - on and off.
Binary functionality of transistors enables the processing of
information in a computer.

Transistors

Two main categories of transistors:

bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and
field effect transistors (FETs).
Transistors have 3 terminals where the application of current
(BJT) or voltage (FET) to the input terminal increases the amount
of charge in the active region.
The physics of "transistor action" is quite different for the BJT
and FET.
In analog circuits, transistors are used in amplifiers and linear
regulated power supplies.
In digital circuits they function as electrical switches, including
logic gates, random access memory (RAM), and microprocessors.

Bipolar Junction Transistors

(BJT)

First BJT was invented early in 1948, only weeks after the
point contact transistor.
Initially known simply as the junction transistor.
It did not become practical until the early 1950s.
The term bipolar was tagged onto the name to
distinguish the fact that both carrier types play important
roles in the operation.
Field Effect Transistors (FETs) are unipolar
transistors since their operation depends primarily on a
single carrier type.

The First BJT

Transistor Size (3/8L X 5/32W X

7/32H)
No Date Codes. No Packaging.

Modern Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

A bipolar transistor
essentially consists of a
pair of PN Junction diodes
that are joined back-toback.
There are therefore two
kinds of BJT, the NPN
and PNP varieties.
The three layers of the
sandwich are
conventionally called the
Collector, Base,
Emitter.

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

Three Layers in a BJT

Collector
Base (very thin)
- has fewer doping atoms
Emitter
Two Types of BJTs

collector

collector

base

P+

n+

PNP (figure on left)

- operates with outgoing base current
emitter

NPN (figure on right)

- operates with incoming base
current

emitter

BJT Schematic Representation

collector
iB
p

base

P+

Corresponds to:

emitter
collector

n+

emitter

Corresponds to:

BJT STRUCTURE
The BJT is constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions.
The three region are called emitter (E),base (B)
and collector (C)
The BJT have 2 types:
1. Two n region separate by a p region called
npn
2. Two p region separated by a n region called
pnp
The pn junction joining the base region and the
emitter region is called the base-emiter junction
The pn junction joining the base region and the
collector region is call base-collector junction
The base region is lightly doped and very thin
compared to the heavily doped emitter and the

BJT STRUCTURE

BJT STRUCTURE

BJT schematic symbol

The arrow on schematic symbol is
important because:
Identify the component terminal. The arrow
is always drawn on the emitter terminal. The
terminal opposite emitter is collector and
the center terminal is base.
The arrow always points toward n-type
material. If the arrow point toward base,
transistor is pnp type. If it points toward
emitter, transistor is npn type.

BJT STRUCTURE
Transistor terminal current

BJT STRUCTURE
Transistor Currents:
The directions of the currents in npn transistor and
pnp transistor are shown in the figure.
The emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector
current (IC) and the base current (IB)

I E I B IC
IB << IE or IC
The capital letter dc value
Transistor is a current-controlled device ; the value of
collector and emitter currents are determined by the
value of base current.
An increase or decrease in value of IB causes similar
change in values of IC and IE.
Current gain () factor
by which current
C
DC B increases from base of
transistor to its collector.

I I

BJT STRUCTURE
Transistor Voltages:

VCC collector supply voltage. This is a power

supply voltage applied directly to collector of
transistor.
VBB base supply voltage. this is dc voltage used
to bias base of transistor.
VEE emitter supply voltage. dc biasing voltage
and in many cases, VEE is simply a ground
connection.

BJT STRUCTURE
Transistor Voltages:

VC dc voltage measured from collector

terminal of component to ground
VB dc voltage measured from base terminal
to ground.
VE dc voltage measured from emitter
terminal to ground.

BJT STRUCTURE
Transistor Voltages:
VCE dc voltage measured from collector to
emitter terminal of transistor.
VBE dc voltage measured from base to emitter
terminal of transistor.
VCB dc voltage measured from collector to
base terminal of transistor.

How the
BJT
works.

EE201 Semiconductor Device

21

How the BJT works

NPN Bipolar
Transistor

Figure shows the energy levels in an

NPN transistor under no externally
applying voltages.

In each of the N-type layers

conduction can take place by the
free movement of electrons in the
conduction band.

In the P-type (filling) layer

conduction can take place by the
movement of the free holes in the
valence band.

However, in the absence of any

externally applied electric field, we
find that depletion zones form at
both PN-Junctions, so no charge
wants to move from one layer to
another.

How the BJT works

Apply a
Collector-Base
voltage

What happens when we apply

a moderate voltage between
the collector and base parts.

The polarity of the applied

voltage is chosen to increase
the force pulling the N-type
electrons and P-type holes
apart.

This widens the depletion zone

between the collector and base
and so no current will flow.

In effect we have reversebiased the Base-Collector

diode junction.

What happens when we apply a relatively

small Emitter-Base voltage whose polarity
is designed to forward-bias the EmitterBase junction.

This 'pushes' electrons from the Emitter

into the Base region and sets up a current
flow across the Emitter-Base boundary.

Once the electrons have managed to get

into the Base region they can respond to
the attractive force from the positivelybiassed Collector region.

Charge Flow

Apply an EmitterBase voltage

As a result the electrons which get into the

Base move swiftly towards the Collector
and cross into the Collector region.
Hence a Emitter-Collector current
magnitude is set by the chosen EmitterBase voltage applied.
Hence an external current flowing in the
circuit.

Charge Flow

Some of free electrons crossing the

Base encounter a hole and 'drop into
it'.

As a result, the Base region loses one

of its positive charges (holes).

The Base potential would become

more negative (because of the removal
of the holes) until it was negative
enough to repel any more electrons
from crossing the Emitter-Base
junction.

The current flow would then stop.

Some electron fall

into a hole

Charge Flow

To prevent this happening we use

the applied E-B voltage to remove
the captured electrons from the base
and maintain the number of holes.

The effect, some of the electrons

which enter the transistor via the
Emitter emerging again from the
Base rather than the Collector.

Some electron fall

into a hole

For most practical BJT only about

1% of the free electrons which try to
cross Base region get caught in this
way.

Hence a Base current, IB, which is

typically around one hundred times
smaller than the Emitter current, IE.

Terminals & Operations

Three terminals:
Base (B): very thin and lightly doped central region (little
recombination).
Emitter (E) and collector (C) are two outer regions
sandwiching B.

Normal operation (linear or active region):

B-E junction forward biased; B-C junction reverse biased.
The emitter emits (injects) majority charge into base region
and because the base very thin, most will ultimately reach
the collector.
The emitter is highly doped while the collector is lightly
doped.
The collector is usually at higher voltage than the emitter.

Terminals & Operations

Operation Mode

Operation Mode

Active:
Most importance mode, e.g. for amplifier operation.
The region where current curves are practically flat.
Saturation:
Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other
out causing a virtual short.
Ideal transistor behaves like a closed switch.
Cutoff:
Current reduced to zero
Ideal transistor behaves like an open switch.

BJT OPERATION Region

Cutoff region
Both transistor
junctions are reverse
biased.
With large depletion
region between C-B
and E-B, very small
amount of reverse
current, ICEO passes
from emitter to
collector and can be
neglected.
So, VCE = VCC

BJT OPERATION Region

Saturation region
Both transistor junctions
are forward-biased.
IC reaches its maximum
value as determined by
VCC and total resistance in
C-E circuit.
IC is independently from
relationship of and IB.

VBE is approximately 0.7V

and VCE < VBE.

VCC
IC
RC RE

BJT OPERATION Region

Active region
BE junction is forward
biased and the BC junction
is reverse biased.
All terminal currents have
some measurable value.
The magnitude of IC
depends on the values of
and IB.

VCE is approximately near

to 0.7V and VCE falls in
ranges VBE<VCE<VCC.

The BJT As An Amplifier

Amplification is the process of increasing the amplitude
of an electrical signal. The circuits used to provide the
amplification are referred to as amplifiers.

Basic transistor amplifier circuit.

The BJT As A Switch

A BJT can be used as a switching device. If the baseemitter junction is not forward-biased, the BJT is in the
cutoff (switched off) and there is an open circuit
between collector and emitter, as shown in Fig. (a).
If the base-emitter junction and base-collector junction
are forward-biased, the BJT is in the saturation
(switched on). There is an short circuit between
collector and emitter, as shown in Fig. (b).

Switching action of an ideal transistor.

The BJT As A Switch

Switching action of an ideal transistor.

Circuit Symbols

Circuit Configuration

Common-emitter

It is called the common-emitter configuration because

(ignoring the power supply battery) both the signal
source and the load share the emitter lead as a
common connection point.

Common-collector

It is called the common-collector configuration because

both the signal source and the load share the collector
lead as a common connection point. Also called an
emitter follower since its output is taken from the
emitter resistor, is useful as an impedance matching
device since its input impedance is much higher than its
output impedance.

Common-base

This configuration is more complex than the other two,

and is less common due to its strange operating
characteristics.
Used for high frequency applications because the base
separates the input and output, minimizing oscillations at
high frequency. It has a high voltage gain, relatively low
input impedance and high output impedance compared
to the common collector.

Comparisons of the transistor

configuration
Common Base

Common
Collector

Common
Emitter

Input
Resistance

Low (FB)
(20 200Kohm)

High

Low

Output
resistance

High (RB)
(100K 1Mohm)

Low

High

Current Gain

High

High

Phase
Difference

In phase

180

Voltage Gain

High

Low

High

Power Gain

High

Low

High

BJT ANALYSIS: Transistor Currents

The values of the collector and emitter
currents are determined by the value of the
base current. An increase or decrease in base
current (IB) causes a similar change in
collector current (IC) and emitter current (IE).

Transistor terminal currents.

BJT ANALYSIS: Transistor Currents

According to Kirchhoffs current law, the
current leaving a component must equal the
current entering the component. By formula,

I E IC I B

3-1

Since IB is normally much less than IC, IC and IE

are approximately equal, expressed as follows:

IC I E

3-2

BJT CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS

DC Beta ( DC

DC
) and DC Alpha
(

):

The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc

base current (IB) is the dc beta
( DC ) = dc current gain of transistor

DC <200
Range value :
20<
Usually designed as an equivalent hybrid (h)
parameter,
on transistor data sheet

hFE

hFE DC
IC
DC
IB

The ratio of the dc collector

DCcurrent (IC) to the dc
emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (
) less used
parameter in transistor
DC circuits
Range value-> 0.95<
<0.99 or greater , but <<
1 (Ic< IE )
IC

DC

IE

For example,
if IE= 100 mA and IB= 1mA, then IC = 99 mA
DC
and
= 0.99.
Determine DC and IE for a transistor where IB
= 50A and IC = 3.65 mA.

A certain transistor has a DC of 200. When

the base current is 50A, determine the
collector current.

The value of IC is normally some multiple of

the value of IB. The factor by which current
increases from base to collector is referred to
as dc current gain (DC) of a transistor.

I E I B ( DC 1)

3-3

If we combine this Eq.3-3 with Eq.3-1, we

get

I C DC I B

3-4

DC is usually designated as an equivalent

hybrid parameter, hFE.

hFE DC

3-5

The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the

dc emitter current (IE) is a dc alpha (DC).

DC

IC

IE

3-6

Using the relationships of Eq.3-1 and 3-6, we

can calculate base current as

I B I E (1 )

3-7

The relationship between alpha and

beta:

DC

DC

DC 1

3-8

BJT CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS (CONT.

Current and Voltage Analysis:
The current and voltage can be identified as follow:
Current:
Voltage:

IB
dc base current,
emitter,

IE
dc emitter current,
IC
base,
dc collector current,
forward-biased
the
emitter,
base-emitter junction

VBE
VCB
dc voltage at collector with respect to
VCE

dc voltage at base with respect to

dc voltage at collector with respect to

reverse-biased the
base-collector junction

Transistor current & voltage

BJT CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS (CONT.)

Current and Voltage Analysis:
When the BE junction is forward-biased, like a forward
biased diode and the voltage
VBE drop
0.7Vis
Since the emitter is at ground (0V), by Kirchhoffs voltage
RB across
VRB VBBis: VBE
law, the voltage
.(1)
Also, by Ohms law: VR I B RB
B
From (1) ->(2) :

VBB VBE I B RB

Therefore, the dc base current is:

VBB VBE
IB
RB

..(2)

BJT CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS (CONT.)

Current and Voltage Analysis:
The voltage at the collector with respect to the grounded
emitter is:

VCE VCC VRC

RC
Since the drop across

is:RC

I C RC

The dc voltage at the collector with respect to the emitter

is:
V V I R
CE

where

CC

I C DC I B

VCB VCE VBE

The dc voltage at the collector with respect to the base is:

Example 1
Determine IB, IC, IE, VCE and VCB in
the circuit below. The transistor has
a DC=150.

Solution example 1
When BE junction is FB, act as normal diode.
So, VBE=0.7V.
The base current, I B V BB V BE 5 0.7 430A
RB

10k

Collector current,

I C DC I B 150( 430 A) 64.5mA

Emitter current,

I E I C I B 64.5mA 430 A 64.9mA

Solve for VCE and VCB.

VCE VCC I C RC 10V (64.5mA)(100) 3.55V

VCB VCE VBE 3.55 0.7 2.85V

Collector characteristic curves

These curves give a graphical
illustration of the relationship
between collector current (IC)
and VCE with specified amounts
of base current. With greater
increases of VCC , VCE continues
to increase until it reaches
breakdown. When VCE
exceeds 0.7 V, the basecollector junction becomes
reverse-biased and the
transistor goes into the active
or linear region. In this region,
the current remains from 0.7 V
to the breakdown voltage.
Fig.3-5: Collector characteristic
curves.

Cutoff
Cutoff is a non-conducting state of a transistor.
This occurs when the base lead opens and the
base current is zero. There is only a very small
amount of collector leakage current , ICEO,
caused by thermally produced carriers.
However, it will usually be neglected so that
V
= Vcutoff,
InCEthe
neither the
CC.
base-emitter nor the
base-collector junctions
are forward-biased.
The subscript CEO
represents collector-toemitter with the base open.
Fig.3-6

Saturation
Saturation is the state of a BJT in which the
collector current has reached a maximum and
is independent of the base current.
Note that saturation value of IC can be
determined by application of Ohms law. When
VCE reaches its saturation value (VCE(sat) = 0, we
obtain,

I Csat

VCC

RC

Fig.3-7

DC Load Line
DC load line graphically illustrates IC(sat) and
cutoff for a transistor.
The bottom of the
load line is at ideal
cutoff where IC = 0
and VCE = VCC.
The top of the load
line is at saturation
where IC = IC(sat) and
VCE = VCE(sat).
Along the load line is
the active region of
the transistors
operation.

Fig.3-8

Collector-Emitter Circuit Q point

Now that we have
the Q-point for
the base circuit,
lets proceed to
the collector
circuit.

The Load Line intersects the Collector-emitter

characteristic, iB = 20 A at VCEQ = 5.9 V and ICQ =
2.5mA, then = 2.5m/20 = 125

DC Load Line
The straight line is know as the
I
= V /(R +R )
DC load line
DC Load Line
Its significance is that
I
regardless of the behavior of the (mA)
V
transistor, the collector current IC
and the collector-emitter voltage
VCE must always lie on the load
line, depends ONLY on the VCC, RC
and RE
(i.e. The dc load line is a graph
that represents all the
possible combinations of IC
and VCE for a given amplifier.
For every possible value of IC,
and amplifier will have a
What is IC(sat) and VCE(off) ?
corresponding value of VCE.)
It must be true at the same
C(sat)

CC

CE(off) =

VCC
VCE

59

Base biased with emitter

feedback technique

Given the value of = 60 and VBE = 0.7V , determine

the following items for the common emitter
configuration. Determine :
a.Ib, Icq, Vcq, saturation point, cut-off point,
b. Draw the DC load line

Biased voltage divider technique

Given the value of = 60 and VBE = 0.7V ,

determine the following items for the
common emitter configuration. Determine :
a.Ib, Icq, Vcq, saturation point, cut-off
point,

Q-Point (Static Operation Point)

When a transistor does not have an ac input, it will

have specific dc values of IC and VCE.

These values correspond to a specific point on the

dc load line. This point is called the Q-point.
The letter Q corresponds to the word (Latent)
quiescent, meaning at rest.
A quiescent amplifier is one that has no ac signal
applied and therefore has constant dc values of IC
and VCE.

62

DC Biasing + AC signal
When an ac signal is applied to the base of the
transistor, IC and VCE will both vary around their Qpoint values.
When the Q-point is centered, IC and VCE can both
make the maximum possible transitions above and
below their initial dc values.
When the Q-point is above the center on the load line,
the input signal may cause the transistor to saturate.
When this happens, a part of the output signal will be
clipped off.
When the Q-point is below midpoint on the load line,
the input signal may cause the transistor to cutoff.
This can also cause a portion of the output signal to be
clipped.

63

DC Biasing + AC signal

64

DC and AC Equivalent Circuits

+VCC

+VCC

R1

IC

RC

R1

RC

RL
vin
R2

R2
RE

vce

vin

rC

R1//R2

IE
RE

rC = RC//RL

Bias Circuit

DC
equivalent
circuit

AC
equivalent
circuit
65

AC Load Line

IC(sat) = VCC/(RC+RE)
DC Load Line
IC
(mA)

VCE(off) = VCC
VCE

IC(sat) = ICQ + (VCEQ/rC)

IC

The ac load line of a given

amplifier will not follow the
plot of the dc load line.
This is due to the dc load of
an amplifier is different from
the ac load.
ac load line

ac load line

IC

Q - point
dc load line

VCE(off) = VCEQ + ICQrC

VCE

VCE

66

AC Load Line
What does the ac load line tell you?
The ac load line is used to tell you the maximum possible
output voltage swing for a given common-emitter
amplifier.
In other words, the ac load line will tell you the
maximum possible peak-to-peak output voltage (Vpp )
from a given amplifier.
This maximum Vpp is referred to as the compliance of the
amplifier.
(AC Saturation Current Ic(sat) , AC Cutoff Voltage VCE(off) )

67

AC Saturation Current and AC

Cutoff Voltage
IC(sat) = ICQ + (VCEQ/rC)

vce

vin

rC

IC

ac load line

R1//R2

VCE(off) = VCEQ + ICQrC

rC = RC//RL

VCE

68

Maximum Possible Compliance

69

Compliance
The maximum possible transition for VCE is equal to the
difference between VCE(off) and VCEQ. Since this transition is
equal to ICQrC, the maximum peak output voltage from the
amplifier is equal to ICQrC. Two times this value will give
the maximum peak-to-peak transition of the output
voltage:
VPP = 2ICQrC
(A)
VPP = the output compliance, in peak-to-peak voltage
ICQ = the quiescent value of IC
rC = the ac load resistance in the circuit

70

Compliance
When IC = IC(sat), VCE is ideally equal to 0V. When IC = ICQ, VCE is at
VCEQ. Note that when IC makes its maximum possible transition
(from ICQ to IC(sat)), the output voltage changes by an amount equal
to VCEQ. Thus the maximum peak-to-peak transition would be equal
to twice this value:
VPP = 2VCEQ
(B)

Equation (A) sets the limit in terms of VCE(off). If the value obtained
by this equation is exceed, the output voltage will try to exceed
VCE(off), which is not possible. This is called cutoff clipping, because
the output voltage is clipped off at the value of VCE(off).
Equation (B) sets of the limit in terms of IC(sat). If the value
obtained by this equation is exceed, the output will experience
saturation clipping.

71

Cutoff and Saturation Clipping

Centered Q-Point for an ideal

amplification

Cutoff and Saturation Clipping

Cutoff and Saturation Clipping

Troubleshooting
Possible faults are open bias resistors, open or
resistive connections, shorted connections and open
or short internal to the transistor itself.
Voltage measurements that are
typically low are caused by a
point that not electrically
connected to ground. This
called a floating point. This is
typically indicative of an open.
More in-depth discussion of
typical failures are discussed
within the textbook.

Correct voltage measurement

Troubleshooting
Testing a transistor can be viewed more simply if you
view it as testing two diode junctions. Forward bias
having low resistance and reverse bias having high
resistance.

Troubleshooting
The diode test function of a multimeter is more
reliable than using an ohmmeter. Make sure to note
whether it is an npn or pnp and polarize the test
leads accordingly.

Summary
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is
constructed of three regions: base, collector, and
emitter.
The BJT has two p-n junctions, the base-emitter
junction and the base-collector junction.
The two types of transistors are pnp and npn.
For the BJT to operate as an amplifier, the baseemitter junction is forward biased and the collectorbase junction is reverse biased (transistor in active
region).
Of the three currents I is very small in comparison
B

to IE and IC.
Beta is the current gain of a transistor. This the
ratio of IC/IB.

Summary
A transistor can be operated as an electronics
switch.
When the transistor is off it is in cutoff condition
(no current).
When the transistor is on, it is in saturation
condition (maximum current).
Beta can vary with temperature and also varies
from transistor to transistor.