TOPIC 2

~DIODES~

EE201 Semiconductor Device

Doa mula kelas

Ya Tuhan, lapangkanlah dadaku, mudahkanlah

segala urusanku, dan lepaskanlah kekakuan lidahku,
agar mereka mengerti perkataanku. (Thaha: 27)

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By the end of this class, students

should be able to:

Understand the characteristics of diode and diode as a semiconductor

device.
Determine I-V characteristic curve for silicon diode and explain:
a. Knee Voltage (Threshold voltage )
b. Forward current (in milli Ampere scale)
c. Reverse current (in microAmpere scale)
d. Breakdown voltage
e. Burning level (when Id, Vd exceeds Pmax)
Know diode applications as rectifiers.
Diode as clipper and clamper circuits.
Understand other types of diode:
a. Zener diode
b. Light emitting diode (LED)
c. Photodiode
d. Laser diode
EE201-semiconductor device

Schematic Diagram and

Physical Diagram
D1

ANODE

CAT HODE
DIODE

~ A diode can be considered to be an electrical one-way

valve.
~ They are made from a large variety of materials
including silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, silicon
carbide

EE201 Semiconductor Device

Diodes

~ In effect, diodes act like a flapper valve

Note: this is the simplest possible model of

a diode
EE201 Semiconductor Device

Diodes
~ For the flapper valve, a small positive
pressure is required to open.
~ Likewise, for a diode, a small positive
voltage is required to turn it on. This
voltage is like the voltage required to
power some electrical device. It is used up
turning the device on so the voltages at
the two ends of the diode will differ.

The voltage required to turn on a diode is

typically around 0.6-0.8 volt for a standard
silicon diode and a few volts for a light emitting
diode (LED)
EE201 Semiconductor Device

At the junction, free electrons from the N-type

material fill holes from the P-type material. This
creates an insulating layer in the middle of the
diode called the depletion zone.

EE201 Semiconductor Device

DIODE-FORWARD BIAS

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DIODE-REVERSE BIAS

EE201 Semiconductor Device

Diode I-V Characteristic

~ For ideal diode, current flows only one way
~ Real diode is close to ideal

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Diode I-V Characteristic

Forward current
current flow when forward bias voltage are
given. (in miliAmpere scale)
Reverse current
small leakage current, flow when reverse bias
voltage (in microAmpere scale (A))
Knee Voltage threshold voltage.(Si-0.7V, Ge- 0.3V). Voltage
that current flow immediately.
Breakdown voltage
voltage that reverse current flow immediately.
Leakage Current
When a diode is reverse biased, a very small
amount of current can and does go in reverse
direction
(i.e.opposite to conventional direction)
giving rise to leakage
current.
Burning Level - When Id and Vd exceed maximum, the
components will burn.

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Ideal Diode

Forward bias diode as a close switch (ON)

because no resistance and voltage drop.
Reverse bias diode as open switch (OFF), infinity
resistance.
Cathode

Anode

Close switch (ON)

Forward bias

Anode

Cathode

Open switch (OFF)

Reverse bias

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DIODE APPLICATIONS

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2-1
DIODE

Half-Wave Rectifiers
ability to conduct current in one direction and
block current in other direction
used in circuit called RECTIFIER (ac dc)
A rectifier is an electrical device that
converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current
(DC), which is in only one direction, a process
known as rectification.

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The basic DC power supply

The basic function of a DC power supply is
to convert an AC voltage to a constant DC
voltage (AC DC)

Either half or full-wave

rectifier convert ac input v
to a pulsating dc voltage.

Maintains a constan
voltage
Eliminates the fluctuations
- produce smooth dc voltage

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Half-Wave Rectifier
Operation
The applied a.c signal across the secondary winding change
polarities after each half -cycle of supply a.c voltage.
At the time of the positive half-cycle of supply a.c voltage,
diode is in forward biased and it conduct current in the circuits.
At the time of negative half-cycle of input a.c voltage, diode
becomes reverse biased and it does not conduct current in the
circuits.
In this way, current flows via the load at the time of positive
half-cycle of input a.c voltage only where as no conduct current
through the load at the time of negative half-cycle in the same
direction is obtain across load for other next cycle.
But this output is pulsating d.c .

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The Half-Wave Rectifier

A half wave
rectifier(ideal) allows
conduction for only
180 or half of a
complete cycle.
During first one cycle:

ac source

load resistor

Vin goes positive

diode FB conduct
current

Vin goes negative

diode RB
no
current- 0V
The average
value
The output
VDC orfrequency
V
pinput
is the
same
as
the
V

VAVG :
AVG
(same shape).

** Measure on dc voltmeter

Ideal diode
model

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Effect of the Barrier Potential on

the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

Practical Diode barrier potential of 0.7V (Si) taken into account.

During +ve half-cycle Vin must overcome Vpotential for forward bias.

Example 1: Calculate the peak o/p voltage, V p(out)?

The peak o/p voltage:

V p ( out ) V p ( in ) 0.7V

V p ( out ) V p (in ) 0.7V

5V 0.7V
4.30V

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Example 2:

Sketch the output V0 and determine the output level vo

network in above figure.

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Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

Peak
inverse
voltage
(PIV) is the
maximum
voltage
across the
diode
when
it is
The
diode
must
in reverse
be
capable of
withstanding
bias.
this amount of
voltage.

PIV V p (in )

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Half-Wave Rectifier with

Transformer-Coupled Input
Voltage

Transformers are often used for voltage

change
and isolation.

The turns
ratio, n of the primary to secondary
Vsec
nV pri versus the input.
determines the
output
The advantages of transformer coupling:
1) allows the source voltage to be stepped
up or down
2) the ac source is electrically isolated from
the rectifier, thus
prevents shock hazards in the
secondary
circuit.
to couple ac input
to the rectifier

N sec
n
N pri

If n>1, Vsec is greater than Vpri.

If n<1, Vsec is less than Vpri.
If n=1, Vsec= Vpri.

V p ( out ) V p (sec) 0.7V

PIV V p (sec)
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Example 3:
Determine the peak value of output voltage as
shown in Figure below.

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 A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during

both the positive and negative half cycles or the
full 360 whereas half-wave rectifier allows only
during one-half of the cycle.
The no. of +ve alternations is twice the half
wave for the same time interval.
The output frequency is twice the input
frequency.
The2average
value the value measured on a
Vp
VAVG
DC voltmeter.
Twice

out

63.7% of Vp
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~ At the time of positive half-cycle of secondary winding voltage,

the upper end of secondary winding becomes positive.
~ Under this condition, upper diode is in forward biased whereas
lower diode is in reverse biased.
~ Hence upper diode conduct positive half-cycle of the input of
the a.c voltage where as lower diode does not conducts.
~ At the time of negative half-cycle of secondary winding, upper
end of secondary winding become negative.
~ Under this condition, lower diode is in forward biased where as
upper diode is in reverse biased.
~ Hence the lower diode conduct current via load of the negative
half-cycle of input a.c voltage and upper diode does not
conducts current.
~ The current in the load is in same direction for both half-cycle of
input a.c voltage. In this way d.c output is obtain across the
load.
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The Center-Tapped Full-Wave

Rectifier
This method of rectification employs two
diodes connected to a secondary centertapped transformer.
The i/p voltage is coupled through the
transformer to the center-tapped secondary.

Coupled input
voltage

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The Center-Tapped Full-Wave

Rectifier
+ve half-cycle input voltage (forward-bias D1 &
reverse-bias D2)-the current patch through the
D1 and RL
-ve half-cycle input voltage (reverse-bias D1 &
forward-bias D2)-the current patch through D2
and RL
The output current on both portions of the input
cycle same direction through the load.
The o/p voltage across the load resistors fullwave rectifiers

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The Center-Tapped Full-Wave

Rectifier
- Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage -

If n=1, Vp(out)=Vp(pri) - 0.7V

2
Vp(sec)=Vp(pri)

Vsec 2V pri

If n=2,Vsec 2V pri

V p ( out ) V p ( pri ) 0.7

In any case, the o/p voltage is always
one-half of the total secondary voltage
minus the diode drop (barrier potential),
no matter what the turns ratio.

Vout

Vsec

0.7V
2

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The Center-Tapped Full-Wave

Rectifier
-Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)V p (sec)

p (sec)
Maximum anode D1
D2
2
2
voltage:
D1: forward-bias its cathode is at the same voltage
of its anode minus diode drop; This is also the
voltage on the cathode of D2.

PIV V across
D2 :
V
PIV

0.7V
2

V p (sec) 0.7V
p (sec)

We
V p ( out )

V p (sec)

p (sec)

0.7V
know
2
that
V
2V
1.4V
Thu
PIV
s; 2V p ( out ) 0.7V
p (sec)

p ( out )

Bridge Rectifier

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The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

It employs four diodes arranged such that
current flows in the direction through the load
during each half of the cycle.
When Vin +ve, D1 and D2 FB and conduct
current. A voltage across RL looks like +ve half of
the input cycle. During this time, D3 and D4 are
RB.
Used 4 diode:
When Vin ve, D3 and D4 are2 FB
and
conduct
diode
in forward
current. D1 and D2 are RB. 2 diode in reverse

Without diode drop (ideal

diode): V p ( out ) V p (sec)

2 diode always in series with

load
resistor
during
+ve(practical
and ve d
With
diode
drop
half cycle .

V p ( out ) V p (sec) 1.4V

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Bridge Rectifier Operation

~ At the time of positive half-cycle of secondary winding voltage the
upper end of the secondary winding becomes positive.
~ Under this condition diode D1 and D4 are in forward biased where as
other diode are in reverse biased.
~ Hence the diode D1 and D4 conduct current through the load resistor.
At the time of negative half -cycle of the secondary winding voltage,
the lower end of the secondary winding is positive.
~ Under this condition, D2 and D3 are in forward biased and where as
other diode are in reverse biased.
~ Hence the diode D2 and D3 conduct current through the load resistor.
~ This flows of current is in same direction as for positive half -cycle of
the secondary winding voltage.
~ Hence d.c output is obtain across load resistor.

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Rectifiers in AC meter

To measure AC current, the AC current must first be converted

to DC current.
This is accomplished with diodes called rectifiers.
The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.
The rectifiers are placed between the meter input and the
meter movement and allow current to flow in only one direction.
(refer figure 13.3)
The rectifiers convert the sine wave into a pulsating DC current
that is applied to the meter movement.

EE201 Semiconductor Device

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Rectifiers in AC meter

EE201 Semiconductor Device

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Clipper circuits

A circuit which removes the peak of a waveform is known as a

clipper.
Clipper circuits have the ability to clip off a portion of the input
signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating
waveform.
There are two types of clipper circuit, namely series and
parallel.
The series configuration is defined as the one where the diode
is in series with the load while the parallel configuration has the
diode in a branch parallel to the load.

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The response of the series configuration of Figure 2.11(a) due to the

alternating waveforms is provided in Figure 2.11(b). Although it was first
introduced as a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are
no boundaries on the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper.

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Clipper circuits
The network of Figure 2.12 is the simplest parallel diode configurations
with the output waveform obtained due to the square waveform input.
The analysis of parallel configuration is very similar to that applied to
series configurations.

EE201 Semiconductor Device

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The clamping network clamp a signal to different dc level. The

network will have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive element.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time
constant t = RC is large enough to ensure that the voltage
across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is non-conducting.
Throughout the analysis we will assume that for all practical
purposes the capacitor will be fully charged.

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 During the interval 0 T/2 the network will appear as shown in Figure
2.14(a) with the diode in the on state effectively shorting out the
effect of the resistor R.
During this interval the output voltage is directly across the short
circuit and v0 = 0 V.
When the input switches to the V state, the network will appear as
shown in Figure 2.14(b) with the open circuit equivalent for the diode
determined by the applied signal.
Since v0 is in parallel with the diode and resistor.
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law around the input loop will result in

The negative sign resulting from the fact that the polarity of 2V is
opposite to the polarity defined for v0.
The output signal is clamped to 0 V for the interval 0 to T/2 but
maintains the same total swing (2V) as the input. Figure 2.15 shows the
output waveform for the clamper.
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EE201 Semiconductor Device

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Diode Clampers
A Clamper Application:
A clamping circuit is often used in TV
receivers as a dc restorer.
The incoming composite video signal is
normally processed through capacitively
coupled amplifiers that eliminate the dc
component, thus losing black and white
reference levels and the blanking level.
Before applied to the picture tube, these
reference level must be restored.
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The Diode Data Sheet

The data sheet for diodes and other devices
gives detailed information about specific
characteristics such as the various
maximum current and voltage ratings,
temperature range, and voltage versus
current curves (V-I characteristic).
It is sometimes a very valuable piece of
information, even for a technician. There are
cases when you might have to select a
replacement diode when the type of diode
needed may no longer be available.
These are the absolute max. values under41

Maximum Rating
Rating

Symbo 1N400 1N400

l
1
2

Peak repetitive reverse

voltage
Working peak reverse
voltage
DC blocking voltage

VRRM

Nonrepetitive peak
reverse voltage

1N40
03

UNIT

50

100

200

VRSM

60

120

240

rms reverse voltage

VR(rms)

35

70

140

Average rectified
forward current (singlephase, resistive load,
60Hz, TA = 75oC

Io

Nonrepetitive peak
surge current (surge
applied at rated load

IFSM

VRWM
VR

A
1

A
30 (for
1

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Maximum Rating

FIGURE 2-56

A selection of rectifier diodes based on maximum ratings of

IO, IFSM, and IRRM.

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ZENER DIODE
~ used to produce a stabilized voltage output (voltage regulator)
~ type of diode that permits current in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is
larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener voltage".

~ A zener diode is much like a normal diode but it is

placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in
reverse breakdown.

EE201 Semiconductor Device

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I-V characteristics

EE201 Semiconductor Device

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Advantages of Diode zener

~ can be able to flow high reverse current without damaging it.
~ zener diode more highly doped and designed to operate in
breakdown region.
~ voltage across the zener diode in reverse bias is constant after
reaching certain value
~ Normal diodes distorts at its breakdown voltage but the zener still
runs after this voltage and keeps the voltage across the diode
constant even the supply voltage increases.

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Example 1:
1N4740 10V zener diode

i/p vary from

10.055V 32V
Maintain
o/p voltage

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

~ are often used as small indicator lights on electronic devices

and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights

and area lighting.
~ Schematic Diagram

Catho
de

Anod
e

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LED Characteristics
~ When a LED is forward biased (switched on), electrons are
able to recombine with electron hole within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons.
~ This effect is called electroluminescene and the color of the
light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.
~ LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light
sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability.
~ LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively
expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
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LED Application

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Photodiode

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Photodiode Characteristics
~ Photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting
light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of
operation.
~ Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes
except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV
or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the
device.
~ Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode will
also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.

EE201 Semiconductor Device

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Photodiode Application

P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other

photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled
devices , and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as
compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for
remote controls in VCRs and televisions.

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Laser Diode
~ A laser diode, also known as an injection laser or
diode laser, is a semiconductor device that produces
coherent radiation (in which the waves are all at the
same frequency and phase) in the visible or infrared
(IR) spectrum when current passes through it.
~ Laser diodes are used in optical fiber systems,
compact disc (CD) players, laser printers, remotecontrol devices, and intrusion detection systems.

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Laser Diode Characteristics

~ Small size and weight: A typical laser diode measures less
than one millimeter across and weighs a fraction of a gram,
making it ideal for use in portable electronic equipment.
~ Low current, voltage, and power requirements: Most laser
diodes require only a few mill watts of power at 3 to 12 volts
DC and several mill amperes. Therefore, they can operate
using small battery power supplies.
~ Low intensity: A laser diode cannot be used for spectacular
purposes such as burning holes in metal, bringing down
satellites, or blinding aircraft pilots. Nevertheless, its coherent
output results in high efficiency and ease of modulation for
communications and control applications.
~ Wide-angle beam: A laser diode produces a "cone" rather
than a "pencil" of visible light or IR, although this "cone" can be
collimated using convex lenses.
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Laser Diode Application

Laser diodes find wide use in telecommunication as easily
modulated and easily coupled light sources for fiber optics
communication.
They are used in various measuring instruments, such as
rangefinders. Another common use is in barcode readers.
Visible lasers, typically red but later also green, are common
as laser pointers.
Both low and high-power diodes are used extensively in the
printing industry both as light sources for scanning (input) of
images and for very high-speed and high-resolution printing
plate (output) manufacturing.
Infrared and red laser diodes are common in CD players, CDROMs and DVD technology. Violet lasers are used in HD DVD
and Blu-ray technology.

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QUICK REVISION.

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Conclusion
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Understand the characteristics of diode and diode as a semiconductor

device.
Determine I-V characteristic curve for silicon diode and explain:
a. Knee Voltage (Threshold voltage )
b. Forward current (in milli Ampere scale)
c. Reverse current (in microAmpere scale)
d. Breakdown voltage
e. Burning level (when Id, Vd exceeds Pmax)
Know diode applications as rectifiers.
Diode as clipper and clamper circuits.
Understand other types of diode:
a. Zener diode
b. Light emitting diode (LED)
c. Photodiode
d. Laser diode
EE201 Semiconductor Device

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GROUP DISCUSSION
Half wave rectifier-fahmi,afiq,akmal
Full wave rectifier-lokman,hafiz,afif
Bridge rectifier-syufadli,nik,kishan,mala
Clipper circuit-shada,nadira,amira,izati
Clamper circuit-aqil,anis,fatin,arina
Zener diode-azim,fizi,khai
LED nadwa, shuhada, prana
Photodiode-mimi,yan,piqah,wati
Laser diode-izat,syafiq,muhyiddin
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