Partial Fractions
Addition & Subtraction
of Algebraic Fractions
Given two or more
fractions, we may add or
subtract them to form one single fraction.
For example:
1
1
x 1 x 1
( x 1) ( x 1)
( x 1)( x 1)
How
about
2
2
the reverse
x 1
process?
Partial Fractions
In the
reverse process, we try to express a
fraction as a sum of more than one fractions.
5
For example: Given
x2 x 6
1
1
we can try to express it as
x2 x3
These are called
partial fractions of the original fraction.
Before we proceed
If the degree of the
numerator of the given
fraction is equal to or greater
than that of the denominator,
divide the numerator by the
denominator until a
remainder is obtained, which
is of lower degree than the
denominator.
For example:
x -1
x3
x2 x 2
x2 x 2 x3
x3 + x2 2x
- x2 + 2x
-x2 x + 2
3x - 2
x3
x2 x 2
( x 2 x 2)( x 1) (3 x 2)
x2 x 2
3x 2
( x 1) 2
x x2
Type I:
Denominator with only linear factors
To every linear factor, (ax + b), the corresponding partial
fraction is in the form
For example:
A
(ax b)
where A is a constant.
11x 12
(2 x 3)( x 2)( x 3)
A
B
C
2x 3 x 2 x 3
Now, the
problem is to
find the
constants A, B
and C.
11x 12
A
B
C
(2 x 3)( x 2)( x 3) 2 x 3 x 2 x 3
11x 12
A( x 2)( x 3) B(2 x 3)( x 3) C (2 x 3)( x 2)
(2 x 3)( x 2)( x 3)
(2 x 3)( x 2)( x 3)
11x + 12 A(x + 2)(x 3) + B(2x + 3)(x 3) + C(2x + 3)(x + 2)
Put x = 3,
Put x = - 2,
11(3) + 12 = C(6 + 3)(3 + 2)
Or,
C=1
11(-2) + 12 = B[2(-2) + 3](-2 -3)
Or,
B = -2
Put x = -3/2, 11(-3/2) + 12 = A(- 3/2 + 2)(- 3/2 3)
Or,
A=2
11x 12
2
2
1
( 2 x 3)( x 2)( x 3) 2 x 3 x 2 x 3
Type II:
Denominator with a quadratic factor
To every quadratic factor, ax2 + bx + c, there corresponds
a partial fraction in the form
Ax B
ax bx c
2
Note that fractions which can be split into partial fractions are necessarily
proper, and thus, the resulting partial fractions themselves are always proper
Example:
3x 1
A
Bx C
2
2
( x 1)( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1)
3x 1
A
Bx C
2
2
( x 1)( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1)
3x 1
A( x 2 1) ( Bx C )( x 1)
2
( x 1)( x 1)
( x 1)( x 2 1)
(3x + 1) A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x 1)
Put x = 1,
3 + 1 = A(1 + 1)
Or, A = 2
Put x = 0,
1 = A + C(-1)
Or, C = 1
Equating the coefficient of x2:
Or, B = -2
0=A+B
3x 1
2
1 2x
2
2
( x 1)( x 1) x 1 x 1
Type III:
Denominator with a repeated factor
To every repeated factor like (ax + b)2 in the
denominator, there corresponds partial fractions in the
form A
B
ax b
and
(ax b) 2
Similarly, for factor like (ax + b)3 in the denominator,
there corresponds partial fractions in the form
A
B
C
,
and
2
ax b (ax b)
(ax b) 3
Example:
1
A
B
C
( x 2)( x 1)
x2
x 1 ( x 1) 2
1
( x 2)( x 1) 2
1
( x 2)( x 2 2 x 1)
A
Bx K
2
x 2 x 2x 1
x2
A
x2
A
x2
B ( x 1) B K
( x 1) 2
B ( x 1) B K
2
( x 1)
( x 1) 2
B
C
x 1 ( x 1) 2
Type II
1
A
B
C
2
( x 2)( x 1)
x 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
1
A( x 1) 2 B ( x 1)( x 2) C ( x 2)
2
( x 2)( x 1)
( x 2)( x 1) 2
1 A(x 1)2 + B(x 1)(x+ 2) + C(x + 2)
Put x = - 2, 1 = A(- 2 1)2
Or, A = 1/9
Put x = 1,
1 = C(1 + 2)
Or, C = 1/3
Equating the coefficients of x2: 0 = A + B
Or, B = -1/9
1
1
1
1
Thus,
2
( x 2)( x 1)
9( x 2) 9( x 1) 3( x 1) 2
How about this?
Express
as partial fractions:
2x 1
5
x ( x 1)