Project Management For Business, Engineering, and Technology

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Chapter 6

Time Planning & Networks

Project Management for Business,


Engineering, and Technology

Scheduling Using Network Methods


Network methods are more sophisticated
planning tools than are Gantt charts
A Gantt chart should be drawn after a
network has been developed (as will be
discussed later)

Two network methods: Activity on Node


(AON) and Activity on Arrow (AOA)

Activity-On Node (AON)


AON: Activity on Node
Each schedule activity in project is
represented by a node or block
Activity A
Initiate project

A project is represented by a network of


nodes connected with arrows arranged in
sequence as specified by immediate
predecessors

AON (contd)
Activity
A
B
C
D
E
F

Immediate
Predecessors
-A
B
B
C, D
E

Given a table like the one above, developing the network is a


mechanistic process that does not require any decisions

Activity-On Node (AON)


In Chapter 5 we indicated
that Gantt charts can be
drawn for work at different
levels within the WBS
Schedule activities in a
network can also represent
work at different levels
A schedule activity at a
higher level contains a subnetwork

AON (contd)
In large projects, good practice is that AON
networks have only one start and one end node

If the project does not have a single end


node (or a single start node), insert a dummy
activity
Start

End

Activity-On Arrow (AOA)


AOA: Activity on Arrow
Each activity is represented by an arrow,
with nodes at each end to represent the
start and finish of the activity
A

start of A

finish of A

AOA networks are more similar to Gantt charts


than AON networks but they necessitate the
use of dummy activities

AOA and Dummy Activities


Convert the following AON diagram into AOA:

AOA and Dummy Activities


AOA diagram requires a dummy activity:

AOA and Dummy Activities


Dummy Activities
Are used to show predecessor
relationships

Are called dummies because they are


not real activities and involve no work.

AON and AOA


Both AON and AOA kinds of networks are
used in industry but AON has become more
popular
We will therefore use AON

AON: Example

AON: Types of Dependencies


Mandatory impossible to reverse sequence

Discretionary can delete dependency to


fast track project
External dependent on some event
external to the project

AON: Types of Dependencies


Which ones are mandatory which ones are discretionary?

Its not about the necessity of the activity, but about the sequence

Class Exercise:
Draw an AON Network for the Following:

AON: Consider a specific Activity


From
preceding
activities

Start time
= 61

Finish time
= 660
Take shower

To
succeeding
activities

Duration = 600

End date = Start date + duration -1

Why minus 1?

Why minus 1?
Consider a 5-day activity starting on Monday
the 1st of the month:
Monday = Day 1 = Start date
Friday
= Day 5 = Finish date
Duration = 5

End date = Start date + duration -1


The assumption is that the activity starts
Monday morning early and finishes late Friday
afternoon

Determining Earliest Times for


Activities
Forward Pass:
The calculation of the early start and early
finish dates for the uncompleted portions of
all network activities
PMBOK

Forward Pass

Finish date = Start date + duration -1

Forward Pass: Class Exercise

Determining Latest Times for Activities


Backward Pass:
The calculation of the late finish dates and late start
dates for the uncompleted portions of all schedule
activities. Determined by working backwards through
the schedule network logic from the projects end
date. The end date may be calculated in the forward
pass or determined by the customer or sponsor
PMBOK

Backward Pass

Early Finish = Early Start + duration 1

Late Start = Late Finish Duration + 1

Late Start = Late Finish Duration + 1

Backward Pass

When an activity has more than one


successor, (like Activity A) use the earliest start
date to determine the late finish date of the
predecessor (i.e. A finishes at day 10, not 14)

Backward Pass: Class Exercise

Due Date set by Customer


If a project has to be done ASAP, use
the end date calculated during the
forward pass.
If a project has a predetermined due
date, use this due date instead of the
date calculated during the forward pass

Due Date set by Customer


Project with predetermined due date, Day 40
A
1

10

11

10
10

B
16

21

6
20

25

10
30

D
11

20
10

21

30

30

31

40

Critical Path
The longest path through a network
(from start to finish)

Activities on the Critical Path are called


critical activities

Critical Path
Why is it an important concept?
Determines the project duration
Shows the project manager where to
focus her attention (critical activities
have least flexibility)

The Critical Path is Not Stable


The critical path will generally change from time to time
as activities are completed ahead or fall behind
schedule
PMBOK, PMI 1996
And it does so without warning!

You do not know where to focus


(Solutions to this problem discussed later)

Total Slack (Float)


Total Slack

LS ES

LF EF

Total Slack = Total Float (or simply Float)

Slack Implies Early and Late Times


Start

Finish

Late Start Late Finish

Slack (contd)
Slack represents scheduling flexibility
How much later than early start
time is permissible
How much an activity can exceed
expected duration
Some activities cannot be delayed
by any amount (zero slack). This is
often the case on the critical path

Slack on the Critical Path


Predetermined due date later than the earliest
possible completion
A
1

10

11

10

10

B
16

21

20

25

30
10

30

31

40

D
11

20

10
21

30

In this case there is float on the critical path

Activities with Slack


Should activities with slack be performed as
soon as possible or only later?
Class Discussion:
Read Review Question No. 16 (Page 234)
Make notes (individually)
Discuss with people sitting next to you
Verdict?

Slack
Why should the Gantt chart be drawn
only after the network has been
developed?
For each activity with float, a decision
has to be made whether the activity
should be performed ASAP or only
later

Free Slack (Free Float)


Total slack is late times minus early times,
and is amount of time an activity can be
delayed without delaying project
Free slack is amount of time an activity
can be delayed without delaying at least
one other activity
If an activity is delayed more than the free
slack, it will delay successors that are
scheduled as early as possible and that
could be disruptive

Free Slack
What is the free slack of Activity X?
1

10

11

10
1

20

21

10
10

30

31

10

11

20

40
10

21

30

31

40

E
11

15

16

20
5

21

25

26

30

Key:

Critical Path
11

13
3

23

25

ES
EF
Duration
LS
LF

Free Slack
What is the free slack of Activity X?
1

10

11

10
1

20

21

10
10

31

10

11

20

40
10

21

30

31

40

E
11

15

16

20
5

21

Slack = 25 11 +1 3
= 12

30

25

26

30

Key:

Critical Path
Free Slack
= 25 21 + 1 3
=2

11

13
3

23

25

ES
EF
Duration
LS
LF

Free Slack

Summary of Planning Process

List stakeholders
Determine project scope with stakeholders
Develop WBS to identify schedule activities
Draw table indicting predecessors (See Table 6-2,
Table 6-3, Table 6.4). Using the table helps to
ensure that no necessary dependencies are
overlooked
Draw network diagram
Do forward and backward pass to determine critical
path and slack
Decisions regarding early and late start of activities
Draw Gantt chart

Summary of Planning Process

Only in the case of a very simple and


small project should you start the
scheduling process by drawing a Gantt
chart!

Scheduling Process
Computerized planning systems
develop the following three items
concurrently:

Table indicating predecessors


Network

Gantt chart

Calendar Schedules
The schedule has to be converted to
indicate calendar dates (and non-working
days e.g. weekends need to be taken into
account)
Computerized systems perform this function
well

Calendar Schedule: Example

Converting from Network to


Calendar Schedule
Considerations:

Resource constraints (discussed later)

Risk of changes

Cash flow

Logistics

Precedence Diagramming
Until now we assumed that a successor
activity can start as soon as all
predecessor activities have been
completed (and that it must start then)

Sometimes we want the successor to be


delayed somewhat (or expedited) from the
end date of a predecessor
Lag and lead relationships are used in
such cases

Precedence Diagramming
A 5-day lag between predecessor and
successor:

A lead between the predecessor and successor


would imply an overlap

Precedence Diagramming and


Conventions other than Finish-to-Start
Start-to-start relationship:

Precedence Diagramming and


Conventions other than Finish-to-Start
Finish-to-finish relationship:

Mostly used with zero lag where activities must end


on the same day

Precedence Diagramming and


Conventions other than Finish-to-Start
Start-to-finish relationship:

Scheduling with Resource Constraints

Project can theoretically be done within 4


days

Scheduling with Resource Constraints


If Activity B and Activity C have to be done by
the same resource, the project will take longer

Scheduling with Resource Constraints:


Workload
Workload of an individual can be indicated
in man-hours required
in % of time (man-hours) available
Workload of a facility / company / division
can be indicated in number of workers
required

Scheduling with Resource Constraints


Class Exercise

Solve Review Problem No 20


on Page 235

Scheduling with Resource Constraints:


Resource Leveling
Resource Leveling:
Any form of schedule network analysis in
which scheduling decisions (start and finish
dates) are driven by resource constraints
(e.g. limited resource availability or difficultto-manage changes in resource availability
levels).
PMBOK

Resource Leveling
of a Time-Constrained Project
Fluctuations in
workload difficult
to manage
Use float
(dotted lines) to
reduce
fluctuations

Resource Leveling
of a Time-Constrained Project

Resource Leveling
of a Time-Constrained Project

Class Assignment:
Discuss Review Problem 24 on
pages 235 - 236

Resource Leveling: Multiple Resources


Reducing overload or improving
difficult-to-manage fluctuations in
workload of one resource sometimes
leads to overloading or more
fluctuations in workload of other
resources

Resource Leveling
of a Resource-Constrained Project

When the maximum availability of a


resource is a constraint, the duration of
the project often has to be increased

Resource Leveling
of a Resource-Constrained Project

Work Load
You need a company-wide system to
manage workload on all projects
concurrently
Why should smaller projects be loaded
onto the system as well?
Small projects also contribute to the
workload!

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