Department of Chemical Engineering

National Institute of Technology, Warangal

________________________________________________________

Academic Year

: 2014-15, I Semester, II Biotech

Course

: CH235 Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer

Instructor

: Dr. V. Ramsagar

Radiation
Radiation, which may be considered to be energy streaming through
space at the speed of light, may originate in various ways.
Thermal Radiation: All substances at temperatures above absolute
zero emit radiation that is independent of external agencies.

Joseph Stefan (1879) total radiation emission per unit time

& area over all wavelengths and in all directions:

Eb sT 4 W m2

s=Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x10-8 W/m2K4

Radiation moves through space in straight lines, or beams, and only

substances in sight of a radiating body can intercept radiation from
that body.
The fraction of the radiation falling on a body that is reflected is
called the reflectivity . The fraction that is absorbed is called the
absorptivity . The fraction that is transmitted is called the
transmissivity .

The sum of these fractions must be unity, or

++ =1
Radiation as such is not heat.
A body that absorbs all incidient radiation is called a blackbody.
Topics to be discussed: emission of radiation, absorption by opaque
solids, radiation between surfaces, radiation to and from
semitransparent materials

The radiation emitted by any given mass of material is independent

of that being emitted by other material in sight of, or in contact
with, the mass.
The net energy gained or lost by a body is the difference between
the energy emitted by the body and that absorbed by it from the
radiation reaching it from other bodies.
When bodies at different temperatures are placed in sight of one
another inside an enclosure, the hotter bodies lose energy by
emission of radiation faster than they receive energy by absorption
of radiation from the cooler bodies, and the temperatures of the
hotter bodies decrease.

WAVELENGTH OF RADIATION. Known electromagnetic

radiations cover an enormous range of wavelengths, from the short
cosmic rays having wavelengths of about 10-11 cm to longwave
broadcasting waves having lengths of 1000 m or more.

Radiation of a single wavelength is called monochromatic.

Radiation of any wavelength from zero to infinity is, in principle,
convertible into heat on absorption by matter.
the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is of importance in
heat flow lies in the wavelength range between 0.5 and 50 m.
Visible light covers a wavelength range of about 0.38 to 0.78 m.
The higher the temperature of the radiating body, the shorter the
predominant wavelength of the thermal radiation emitted by it.

Monatomic and diatomic gases such as oxygen, argon, and

nitrogen radiate weakly, even at high temperatures.
Under industrial conditions, these gases neither emit nor absorb
appreciable amounts of radiation.

Polyatomic gases, including water vapor, carbon dioxide,

ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons emit and absorb
radiation appreciably at furnace temperatures but only in certain
bands of wavelength.
Solids and liquids emit radiation over the entire spectrum.

EMISSIVE POWER. The monochromatic energy emitted by a

radiating surface depends on the temperature of the surface and on
the wavelength of the radiation.
The unit chosen for measuring
the monochromatic radiation is
based on the fact that, from a
small area of a radiating
surface, the energy emitted is
"broadcast" in all directions
through any hemisphere
centered on the radiation area.
The monochromatic radiation
emitted in this manner from
unit area in unit time divided
by the wavelength is called the
monochromatic radiating
power W.

the total radiating power W:

EMISSIVITY.

MONOCHROMATIC EMISSIVITY.

If the monochromatic emissivity of a body is the same for all

wavelengths, the body is called a gray body.

EMISSIVITIES OF SOLIDS.
Emissivity usually increases with temperature.
Emissivities of polished metals are low, in the range 0.03 to 0.08.

PRACTICAL SOURCE OF BLACKBODY RADIATION. No actual

substance is a black body, although some materials, such as certain
grades of carbon black, do approach blackness.
An experimental equivalent of a black body is an isothermal
enclosure containing a small peephole.
The overall absorptivity of the interior surface is unity.
LAWS OF BLACKBODY RADIATION. A basic relationship for
blackbody radiation is the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Wb T4

Planck's law: The distribution of energy in the spectrum of a

blackbody

Eq can be written using the Cl and C2 constants

the maximum monochromatic radiating power is attained at a
definite wavelength, denoted by max
Wien's displacement law states that max is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature

ABSORPTION OF RADIATION BY OPAQUE SOLIDS

Most solids (other than glasses, certain plastics, quartz,
and some minerals) absorb radiation of all wavelengths
so readily that, except in thin sheets, the transmissivity
is zero.
absorption of radiation by an opaque solid is a surface
phenomenon, not a volume phenomenon.
The heat generated by the absorption can flow into or
through the mass of an opaque solid only by
conduction.

REFLECTIVITY AND ABSORPTIVITY OF OPAQUE

SOLIDS.
sum of the reflectivity and the absorptivity is unity.
The reflectivity of an opaque solid depends on the temperature
and character of the surface, the material of which the surface is
made, the wavelength of the incident radiation, and the angle of
incidence.
Types of Reflections: specular and diffuse

Specular: characteristic of smooth surfaces, the reflected

beam makes a definite angle with the surface, and the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection.
reflectivity from these surfaces approaches unity

Diffuse Reflection: from rough surfaces or from dull, or matte,

surfaces.
reflect diffusely in all directions, there is no definite angle of
reflection, and the absorptivity can approach unity.

Most industrial surfaces of interest to the chemical engineer give

diffuse reflection important simplifying assumption can usually
be made that reflectivity and absorptivity are independent of
angle of incidence.
This assumption is equivalent to the cosine law for a perfectly
diffusing surface the intensity of the radiation leaving the surface
is independent of the angle from which the surface is viewed.

The reflectivity may vary with the wavelength of the incident

radiation.
The absorptivity of the entire beam is then a weighted average of the
monochromatic absorptivities and depends upon the entire spectrum
of the incident radiation.
The absorptivity of a gray body, like the emissivity, is the same for all
wavelengths.
If the surface of the gray body gives diffuse radiation or reflection,
its monochromatic absorptivity is also independent of the angle of
incidence of the radiant beam.
The total absorptivity equals the monochromatic absorptivity and is
also independent of the angle of incidence.

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW

At temperature equilibrium, the ratio of the total radiating

power of any body to its absorptivity depends only upon
the temperature of the body.
Ex: any two bodies in temperature equilibrium with
common surroundings.

when any body is at temperature equilibrium with its surroundings,

its emissivity and absorptivity are equal.

The radiant heat flux (q) is incident onto the body and allowed to come into temperature
equilibrium.
E is the emissive power of the body, is absorptivity of the of the body at equilibrium
temperature, and A is the area of the body.
EA = qA
Eb = q
E/Eb=

except for blackbodies or gray bodies, absorptivity and emissivity

are not equal if the body is not in thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings.
The absorptivity and emissivity, monochromatic or total, of a
blackbody are both unity.

RADIATION BETWEEN SURFACES

Total radiation for a unit area of an opaque body of area A1 emissivity
1 and absolute temperature T1
(1)
Most surfaces emit radiation also receive radiation from other
surfaces at different temperatures.
Some of this incoming radiation is absorbed and must be allowed for
in determining the total flux of radiant energy.
example, a steam line in a room is surrounded by the walls, floor,
and ceiling of the room, all of which are radiating to the pipe, and
although the pipe loses more energy than it absorbs from its
surroundings, the net loss by radiation is less than that calculated
from Eq. 1.

In Radiation HT our objective is to obtain a controlled rate

of net heat exchange between one or more hot surfaces,
called sources, and one or more cold surfaces, called
sinks.
Examples: radiation between two surfaces is where each
surface can see only the other

Parallel Planes (block surface)

The net loss of energy per nnit area by the first plane and the net
gain by the second is

Engineering problems:
One or both of the surfaces of interest see other
surfaces.
an element of surface in a concave area sees a portion
of its own surface.
No actual surface is exactly black, and the emissivities
of the surfaces must often be considered.

ANGLE OF VISION

2 sr (steradians) is the maximum angle of vision that can

be subtended at any area element by a plane surface in
sight of the element.
The total radiating power of an area element is defined to
take this fact into account.

Muffle furnace: the radiation from the hot floor, or source, is

intercepted partly by the row of tubes across the top of the furnace,
which form the sink, and partly by the refractory walls and the
refractory ceiling behind the tubes. The refractory in such assemblies is
assumed to absorb and emit energy at the same rate, so the net energy
effect at the refractory is zero.

rate of energy reception by element dA1 of radiation originating at dA2

The net rate of transfer dq12 between the two area elements

QUANTITATIVE CALCULATION OF RADIATION BETWEEN BLACK SURFACES

The factor F is called the view factor or angle factor; it depends

upon the geometry of the two surfaces, their spatial relationship with
each other, and the surface chosen for A.

Factor F12 may be regarded as the fraction of the radiation leaving

area A1 that is intercepted by area A2
If surface A1 can see only surface A2, the view factor F12 is unity.
If surface A1 sees a number of other surfaces and if its entire
hemispherical angle of vision is filled by these surfaces.

The factor F11 covers the portion of the angle of vision

subtended by other portions of body A1.
If the surface of A1 cannot see any portion of itse lf, F11 is
zero.
Example: consider a small black body of area A2 having no
cavities and surrounded by a large black surface of area A1.
The factor F21 , is unity.

View Factors Relations:

Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N surfaces requires the evaluation
of N 2 view factors.
The reciprocity relation
=
The summation rule

= 1
3

=1

1 = 11 + 12 + 13 = 1
=1

The superposition rule

the view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors from
surface i to the parts of surface j
Note that the reverse of this is not true.

F1 (2, 3) = F1 2 + F1 3
F1 3 = F1 (2, 3) - F1 2

2,3)1

2 21 + 3 31
2 + 3

The symmetry rule

The symmetry rule can be expressed as two (or more) surfaces that possess
symmetry about a third surface will have identical view factors from that surface

N = 2 and this enclosure involves N 2 = 22 =

4 view factors, which are F11, F12, F21, and
F22.
We have to determine
1
1
1 =
2 21 = 1
2
2
F11 = 0, since no radiation leaving surface
1 strikes itself
F12 = 1, since all radiation leaving surface 1
strikes surface 2

A1 F12 = A2 F21

Determine the view factors from the base of the pyramid

shown in Figure to each of its four side surfaces. The base of
the pyramid is a square, and its side surfaces are isosceles
triangles.
the symmetry rule,
F12 = F13 = F14 = F15
the summation rule
5

1 = 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 = 1
=1

F11 = 0

Determine the view factor from any one side to any other side of the infinitely long
triangular duct whose cross section is given in Figure
N 2 = 32 = 9
1
1
1 = 3 31 = 3
2
2
F11 = F22 = F33 = 0
11 + 12 + 13 = 1

1 12 + 1 13 = 1

21 + 22 + 23 = 1

2 21 + 2 23 = 2

31 + 32 + 33 = 1

3 31 + 3 32 = 3

reciprocity relations A1F12 = A2F21, A1F13 = A3F31, and A2F23 = A3F32

1 12 + 1 13 = 1
1 12 + 2 23 = 2
1 13 + 2 23 = 3

3 Equations and 3 unknowns

12

1 + 2 3 1 + 2 3
=
=
21
2 1

13 =

1 + 3 2 1 + 3 2
=
21
2 1

23 =

2 + 3 1 2 + 3 1
=
22
2 2

NONBLACK SURFKCES
radiation between nonblack surfaces, in the general case where absorptivity and
emissivity are unequal and both depend upon wavelength and angle of incidence

example is a small body that is not black surrounded by a black

surface. Let the areas of the enclosed and surrounding surfaces be
A1 and A2, respectively, and let their temperatures be T1 and T2

The radiation from surface A2 falling on

surface A1 is A2F21T24

The net energy loss by surface A1 is

Areas A1 and A2
A2 is black body
A1 is non black

In general, for gray surfaces

For Black Surfaces

For Gray Surfaces

the overall interchange factors are functions of 1 and 2

Two large parallel planes: In simple cases the factor

F can be calculated directly.

Consider two Iarge gray parallel planes at absolute temperatures T1 and T2 , 1 and 2

the total amount of radiation originating at surface 1 that is absorbed by surface 2

Some of the energy originating at surface 2, as shown in Fig., is reflected

by surface 1 and returns to surface 2, where part of it is absorbed.

Example 14.1.

A chamber for heat curing large aluminum sheets,

lacquered black on both sides, operates by passing
the sheets vertically between two steel plates 150
mm apart. One of the plates is at 300C and the
other, exposed to the atmosphere, is at 25C.
(a) What is the temperature of the lacquered sheet?
(b) What is the heat transferred between the walls
when equilibrium has been reached? Neglect
convection effects.
Emissivity of steel is 0.56; emissivity of lacquered
sheets is 1.0.

Determine the net heat transfer by radiation between two

surfaces A and B, expressed as watts per square meter of
area B, if the temperatures of A and B are 500 and 200C
respectively, and the emissivity's of A and B are 0.90 and
0.25, respectively. Both surfaces are gray.
(a)Surfaces A and B are infinite parallel planes 3 m apart.
(b)Surface A is a spherical shell 3 m in diameter, and
surface B is a similar shell concentric with A and 0.3 m in
diameter.