Signal Encoding
Techniques
Chapter 6
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment less complex and expensive than digital-to-analog
modulation equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Permits use of modern digital transmission and switching
equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted easily and
cheaply
Done with voice transmission over voice-grade lines
Signal Encoding Criteria
What determines how successful a receiver will be in
interpreting an incoming signal?
Signal-to-noise ratio
Data rate
Bandwidth
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal spectrum
With lack of high-frequency components, less bandwidth required
With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer possible
Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges
Clocking
Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit position
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal interference and noise immunity
Performance in the presence of noise
Cost and complexity
The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques
Digital data to analog signal
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
Amplitude-Shift Keying
One binary digit represented by presence of carrier, at constant
amplitude
Other binary digit represented by absence of carrier
A cos2f c t
s t
where the carrier signal is
Acos(2fct)
0
binary 1
binary 0
Amplitude-Shift Keying
Susceptible to sudden gain changes
Inefficient modulation technique
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Two binary digits represented by two different frequencies near
the carrier frequency
A cos2f1t
s t
A cos2f 2t
binary 1
binary 0
where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but opposite
amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Less susceptible to error than ASK
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio
transmission
Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use
coaxial cable
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
More than two frequencies are used
More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to error
f i = f c + (2i s
i1 tM)fd A cos 2f i t
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element
1 i M
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
To match data rate of input bit stream, each output
signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
So, one signal element encodes L bits
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
Minimum frequency separation required 2fd=1/Ts
Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Two-level PSK (BPSK)
Uses two phases to represent binary digits
binary 1
A cos2f c t
s t
binary 0
A cos2f c t
A cos2f c t
A cos2f c t
binary 1
binary 0
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Differential PSK (DPSK)
Phase shift with reference to previous bit
Binary 0 signal burst of same phase as previous signal burst
Binary 1 signal burst of opposite phase to previous signal burst
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Four-level PSK (QPSK)
Each element represents more than one bit
s t
A cos 2f c t
4
A cos 2f c t
A cos 2f c t
A cos 2f c t
4
11
01
00
10
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Multilevel PSK
Using multiple phase angles with each angle having more
than one amplitude, multiple signals elements can be
achieved
R
R
D
L log 2 M
D = modulation rate, baud
R = data rate, bps
M = number of different signal elements = 2L
L = number of bits per signal element
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
ASK, PSK
FSK
BT=(1+r)R
BT=2DF+(1+r)R
R = bit rate
0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
1 r
1 r
R
BT
R
L
log 2 M
MFSK
1 r M
R
BT
log 2 Melement
L = number of bits encodedper signal
MPSK
M = number of different signal elements
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
Two different signals sent simultaneously on the same carrier
frequency
st d1 t cos 2f c t d 2 t sin 2f c t
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Reasons for Analog Modulation
Modulation of digital signals
When only analog transmission facilities are available, digital
to analog conversion required
Modulation of analog signals
A higher frequency may be needed for effective transmission
Modulation permits frequency division multiplexing
Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to analog signal
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
s t 1 na xt cos 2f c t
cos2fct = carrier
x(t) = input signal
na = modulation index
Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier (DSBTC)
Spectrum of AM signal
Amplitude Modulation
Transmitted power
na
Pt Pc 1
2
P = total transmitted power in s(t)
Pc = transmitted power in carrier
Single Sideband (SSB)
Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
Advantages
Sends only one sideband
Eliminates other sideband and carrier
Only half the bandwidth is required
Less power is required
Disadvantages
Suppressed carrier cant be used for synchronization purposes
Angle Modulation
Angle modulation
st Ac cos2f c t t
Phase modulation
Phase is proportional to modulating signal
np = phase modulation
t nindex
m
p
Angle Modulation
Frequency modulation
Derivative of the phase is proportional to modulating signal
nf = frequency modulation
' tindex
n
mt
Angle Modulation
Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a signal whose
bandwidth:
is also centered at fc
but has a magnitude that is much different
Angle modulation includes cos( (t)) which produces a wide range of
frequencies
Thus, FM and PM require greater bandwidth than AM
Angle Modulation
Carsons rule
BT 2 1B
n p Am
for PM
F n f Am
for FM
B 2B
The formula for FM becomes
where
BT 2F 2 B
Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to digital signal
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Delta modulation (DM)
Analog Data to Digital Signal
Once analog data have been converted to digital signals,
the digital data:
can be transmitted using NRZ-L
can be encoded as a digital signal using a code other than
NRZ-L
can be converted to an analog signal, using previously
discussed techniques
Pulse Code Modulation
Based on the sampling theorem
Each analog sample is assigned a binary code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM) samples
The digital signal consists of block of n bits, where
each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is only
approximated
Leads to quantizing noise
Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNR dB 20 log 2 n 1.76 dB 6.02 n 1.76 dB
Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by 6 dB, or a
factor of 4
Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by staircase function
Moves up or down by one quantization level () at each
sampling interval
The bit stream approximates derivative of analog signal
(rather than amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up
0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation
Two important parameters
Accuracy improved by increasing sampling rate
Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
Sampling rate
However, this increases the data rate
Advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity of its
implementation
Reasons for Growth of Digital
Techniques
Growth in popularity of digital techniques for sending
analog data
Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
TDM is used instead of FDM
No additive noise
No intermodulation noise
Conversion to digital signaling allows use of more efficient
digital switching techniques
