NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

AND PRINCIPLE
(DSC702)

LECTURE 1

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-1

THE OSI MODEL AND

THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
OBJECTIVES
UNDERSTAND THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE OSI MODEL
UNDERSTAND THE LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
UNDERSTAND THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE TCP/IP
PROTOCOL SUITE

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE OSI MODEL AND THE TCP/IP

SUITE
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE THREE TYPES OF INTERNET
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ADDRESSES
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

NETWORKING
COMPUTER NETWORK A COLLECTION OF
COMPUTING DEVICES THAT ARE CONNECTED IN
VARIOUS WAYS IN ORDER TO COMMUNICATE
AND SHARE RESOURCES
USUALLY, THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
COMPUTERS IN A NETWORK ARE MADE USING
PHYSICAL WIRES OR CABLESHOWEVER, SOME
CONNECTIONS ARE WIRELESS, USING RADIO
WAVES OR INFRARED SIGNALS
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-3

NETWORKING
THE GENERIC TERM NODE OR HOST REFERS TO
ANY DEVICE ON A NETWORK
DATA TRANSFER RATE THE SPEED WITH
WHICH DATA IS MOVED FROM ONE PLACE ON A
NETWORK TO ANOTHER
DATA TRANSFER RATE IS A KEY ISSUE IN
COMPUTER NETWORKS

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-4

NETWORKING
COMPUTER NETWORKS HAVE OPENED UP AN
ENTIRE FRONTIER IN THE WORLD OF COMPUTING
CALLED THE CLIENT/SERVER MODEL

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

NETWORKING
FILE SERVER A COMPUTER THAT
STORES AND MANAGES FILES FOR
MULTIPLE USERS ON A NETWORK
WEB SERVER A COMPUTER DEDICATED
TO RESPONDING TO REQUESTS (FROM
THE BROWSER CLIENT) FOR WEB PAGES

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-6

TYPES OF NETWORKS
LOCAL-AREA NETWORK (LAN) A NETWORK
THAT CONNECTS A RELATIVELY SMALL NUMBER
OF MACHINES IN A RELATIVELY CLOSE
GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-7

TYPES OF NETWORKS
VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS, CALLED TOPOLOGIES, HAVE
BEEN USED TO ADMINISTER LANS
RING TOPOLOGY A CONFIGURATION THAT CONNECTS
ALL NODES IN A CLOSED LOOP ON WHICH MESSAGES
TRAVEL IN ONE DIRECTION
STAR TOPOLOGY A CONFIGURATION THAT CENTERS
AROUND ONE NODE TO WHICH ALL OTHERS ARE
CONNECTED AND THROUGH WHICH ALL MESSAGES
ARE SENT
BUS TOPOLOGY ALL NODES ARE CONNECTED TO A
SINGLE COMMUNICATION LINE THAT CARRIES
MESSAGES IN BOTH DIRECTIONS
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-8

TYPES OF NETWORKS

Various network topologies

A BUS TECHNOLOGY CALLED ETHERNET HAS

15-9
BECOME THE INDUSTRY STANDARD FOR LOCAL- 15-10
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

TYPES OF NETWORKS
WIDE-AREA NETWORK (WAN) A NETWORK THAT
CONNECTS TWO OR MORE LOCAL-AREA NETWORKS
OVER A POTENTIALLY LARGE GEOGRAPHIC DISTANCE
OFTEN ONE PARTICULAR NODE ON A LAN IS SET UP TO
SERVE AS A GATEWAY TO HANDLE ALL
COMMUNICATION GOING BETWEEN THAT LAN AND
OTHER NETWORKS
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NETWORKS IS CALLED
INTERNETWORKING
THE INTERNET, AS WE KNOW IT TODAY, IS
ESSENTIALLY THE ULTIMATE WIDE-AREA NETWORK,
B.O SADIQ SPANNING THE ENTIRE
E&CE DEPARTMENT
ABU ZARIA
GLOBE

15-10

TYPES OF NETWORKS
METROPOLITAN-AREA NETWORK (MAN) THE
COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURES THAT HAVE
BEEN DEVELOPED IN AND AROUND LARGE CITIES

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-11

INTERNET CONNECTIONS
INTERNET BACKBONE A SET OF HIGH-SPEED
NETWORKS THAT CARRY INTERNET TRAFFIC
THESE NETWORKS ARE PROVIDED BY
COMPANIES SUCH AS AT&T, GTE, AND IBM
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP) A COMPANY
THAT PROVIDES OTHER COMPANIES OR
INDIVIDUALS WITH ACCESS TO THE INTERNET

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-12

INTERNET CONNECTIONS
THERE ARE VARIOUS TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE THAT
YOU CAN USE TO CONNECT A HOME COMPUTER TO THE
INTERNET
A PHONE MODEM CONVERTS COMPUTER DATA INTO
AN ANALOG AUDIO SIGNAL FOR TRANSFER OVER A
TELEPHONE LINE, AND THEN A MODEM AT THE
DESTINATION CONVERTS IT BACK AGAIN INTO DATA
A DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL) USES REGULAR
COPPER PHONE LINES TO TRANSFER DIGITAL DATA TO
AND FROM THE PHONE COMPANYS CENTRAL OFFICE
A CABLE MODEM USES THE SAME LINE THAT YOUR
CABLE TV SIGNALS
COME IN ON TO TRANSFER THE
B.O SADIQ
E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-13

INTERNET CONNECTIONS
BROADBAND A CONNECTION IN WHICH
TRANSFER SPEEDS ARE FASTER THAN 128
BITS PER SECOND
DSL CONNECTIONS AND CABLE MODEMS ARE
BROADBAND CONNECTIONS
THE SPEED FOR DOWNLOADS (GETTING DATA
FROM THE INTERNET TO YOUR HOME
COMPUTER) MAY NOT BE THE SAME AS UPLOADS
(SENDING DATA FROM YOUR HOME COMPUTER
B.O SADIQ
E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA
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TO THE INTERNET)

OSI MODEL

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

OSI LAYERS

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

AN EXCHANGE USING OSI MODEL

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Physical layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

18

Note:
The physical layer is responsible
for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

19

Data link layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

20

Note:
The data link layer is responsible for
moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

21

Hop-to-hop delivery

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

22

Network layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

23

Note:
The network layer is responsible for
the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

24

Source-to-destination delivery

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

25

Transport layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

26

Note:
The transport layer is responsible for
the delivery of a message from one
process to another.

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

27

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

28

Session layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

29

Presentation layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

30

Application layer

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

31

Summary of layers

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

32

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-34

IP

CORE INTERNET PROTOCOL

LAYER

A CONNECTIONLESS UNRELIABLE PROTOCOL THAT IS

PART OF THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
ARP (ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL)

RESOLVES IP ADDRESSES TO MAC ADDRESSES

ICMP (INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL)
DIAGNOSTICS AND ERROR REPORTING
(IGMP) INTERNET GROUP MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL
MANAGEMENT OF GROUP MULTICAST

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-35

2.4 Addressing
Three different levels of addresses are used in an internet using the TCP/IP
protocols: physical (link) address, logical (IP) address, and
port address.
The topics discussed in this section include:

Physical Address
Logical Address
Port Address

36
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Addresses in TCP/IP

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

37

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

38
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
NETWORK PROTOCOLS ARE LAYERED SUCH THAT
EACH ONE RELIES ON THE PROTOCOLS THAT
UNDERLIE IT
SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS A PROTOCOL STACK

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Layering of key network protocols

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

TCP/IP
TCP STANDS FOR TRANSMISSION
CONTROL PROTOCOL
TCP SOFTWARE BREAKS MESSAGES INTO PACKETS, HANDS
THEM OFF TO THE IP SOFTWARE FOR DELIVERY, AND THEN
ORDERS AND REASSEMBLES THE PACKETS AT THEIR
DESTINATION

IP STANDS FOR INTERNET PROTOCOL

IP SOFTWARE DEALS WITH THE ROUTING OF PACKETS
THROUGH THE MAZE OF INTERCONNECTED NETWORKS TO
THEIR FINAL DESTINATION
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-40

TCP HEADER

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

TCP/IP (CONT.)
UDP STANDS FOR USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
IT IS AN ALTERNATIVE TO TCP
THE MAIN DIFFERENCE IS THAT TCP IS
HIGHLY RELIABLE, AT THE COST OF
DECREASED PERFORMANCE, WHILE UDP IS
LESS RELIABLE, BUT GENERALLY FASTER

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-42

UDP HEADER

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

HIGH-LEVEL PROTOCOLS
OTHER PROTOCOLS BUILD ON THE
FOUNDATION ESTABLISHED BY THE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
(SMTP)
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
TELNET

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL

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PORT NUMBERS

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

FIREWALLS
FIREWALL A MACHINE AND ITS SOFTWARE THAT
SERVE AS A SPECIAL GATEWAY TO A NETWORK,
PROTECTING IT FROM INAPPROPRIATE ACCESS
FILTERS THE NETWORK TRAFFIC THAT
COMES IN, CHECKING THE VALIDITY OF THE
MESSAGES AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE AND
PERHAPS DENYING SOME MESSAGES
ALTOGETHER

ENFORCES AN ORGANIZATIONS ACCESS

CONTROL POLICY
B.O SADIQ
E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-46

FIREWALLS

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-47

NETWORK ADDRESSES
HOSTNAME A UNIQUE IDENTIFICATION
THAT SPECIFIES A PARTICULAR
COMPUTER ON THE INTERNET
FOR EXAMPLE
MATISSE.CSC.VILLANOVA.EDU
CONDOR.DEVELOCORP.COM
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-48

NETWORK ADDRESSES
NETWORK SOFTWARE TRANSLATES A
HOSTNAME INTO ITS CORRESPONDING IP
ADDRESS
FOR EXAMPLE
205.39.145.18

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-49

NETWORK ADDRESSES
AN IP ADDRESS CAN BE SPLIT INTO
NETWORK ADDRESS, WHICH SPECIFIES A
SPECIFIC NETWORK

HOST NUMBER, WHICH SPECIFIES A

PARTICULAR MACHINE IN THAT NETWORK

15-50

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

A HOSTNAME CONSISTS OF THE COMPUTER
NAME FOLLOWED BY THE DOMAIN NAME
CSC.VILLANOVA.EDU IS THE DOMAIN NAME
A DOMAIN NAME IS SEPARATED INTO TWO OR MORE
SECTIONS THAT SPECIFY THE ORGANIZATION, AND
POSSIBLY A SUBSET OF AN ORGANIZATION, OF WHICH
THE COMPUTER IS A PART
TWO ORGANIZATIONS CAN HAVE A COMPUTER NAMED
THE SAME THING BECAUSE THE DOMAIN NAME MAKES
IT CLEAR WHICH ONE IS BEING REFERRED TO
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-51

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

THE VERY LAST SECTION OF THE DOMAIN IS
CALLED ITS TOP-LEVEL DOMAIN (TLD) NAME

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Top-level domains, including some relatively new ones

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

ORGANIZATIONS BASED IN COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE
UNITED STATES USE A TOP-LEVEL DOMAIN THAT
CORRESPONDS TO THEIR TWO-LETTER COUNTRY CODES

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS) IS CHIEFLY
USED TO TRANSLATE HOSTNAMES INTO
NUMERIC IP ADDRESSES
DNS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A DISTRIBUTED
DATABASE
IF THAT SERVER CAN RESOLVE THE
HOSTNAME, IT DOES SO
IF NOT, THAT SERVER
ASKS ANOTHER
E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA
DOMAIN NAME SERVER

B.O SADIQ

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THEORY OF SUBNETTING
IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
SUBNET MASKING
SUBNETTING

EXERCISES
ANDING FUNCTION

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-55

SUBNETTING
WHY ? - BECAUSE USING NATURAL ADDRESS
MASKS ARE NOT EFFICIENT - TOO LARGE
REDUCES THE SIZE OF THE NETWORK, WHICH IN
TURN MAKES IT EASIER TO MANAGE AND
TROUBLESHOOT
BREAKING UP THE ADDRESS SPACE INTO USEABLE
SUBNETS
PROCESS INVOLVES BORROWING BITS FROM THE
HOST PART OF THE ADDRESS TO CREATE A
B.O SADIQ
E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA
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LARGER NETWORK ADDRESS

IP ADDRESS RANGE

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

PRIVATE IP ADDRESS RANGE

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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

SUBNETTING
IP ADDRESSING
CLASSES WITHIN IP
CLASS A - 16,777,214 (224 - 2) - GOVERNMENTS - START WITH 0
CLASS B - 65,534 (216 -2) - MEDIUM-SIZE COMPANIES - START
WITH 10
CLASS C - 254 (28 -2) - ALL OTHER ENTITIES - START WITH 110

CLASS D - RESERVED FOR USE BY MULTICAST SERVICES

PROVIDED BY THE INTERNET GROUP MANAGEMENT GROUP
(IGMP) - START WITH 1110
MULTICAST BROADCASTS ALLOW IP DATAGRAMS TO BE
SENT TO SPECIFIC GROUPS THAT BELONG TO A MULTICAST
GROUP
DEPARTMENT
ABU ZARIA
CLASS E - NOT IN E&CE
USE
OR ONLY
USED FOR TESTING AND 15-59
DEVELOPMENT RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE - START WITH
11110

B.O SADIQ

IP ADDRESSING
Network

Host

193.32.2.0
WE NEED TO USE BITS FROM THE HOST PART OF AN IP
ADDRESS TO CREATE SUBNETS
THE NUMBER OF BITS DEPEND ON THE NUMBER OF
SUBNETS NEEDED FOR THAT COMPANY
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-60

SUBNET MASK
PROPERTIES OF THE SUBNET MASK ARE
32 BITS
IN BINARY FORMAT
EXPRESSED AS 4 OCTETS
DEFINED FROM LEFT TO RIGHT
USED BY INTERNETWORKING DEVICES TO FIND OUT
WHAT TYPE OF NETWORK/ SUBNETWORK IS
INSTALLED/USED BY A COMPANY

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

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SUBNET MASK
DEFAULT SUBNET MASKS
CLASS A - 255.0.0.0
CLASS B - 255.255.0.0

CLASS C - 255.255.255.0
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE USE
SUBNETTING?
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-62

SUBNET MASK
THE MOST MISUNDERSTOOD PART OF IP ADDRESSING

DO NOT INTRODUCE ABOVE IN A CLASS !

SUBNET MASKS ARE USED TO MAKE IT EASY TO DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN NETWORK AND HOST ADDRESS

EXAMPLE A CLASS B NETWORK NOT SUBNETTED

130.12.0.0 - IP ADDRESS
255.255.0.0 - SUBNET MASK

N N

H H

ALL NETWORK BITS ASSIGNED TO 1

11111111.11111111.0.0
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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

SUBNETTING EXERCISE A
EXAMPLE OF SUBNETTING

THE NETWORK ADMINISTRATOR OF IYACC RECEIVES NEW NETWORK

ADDRESS 132.8.0.0
IYACC HAS 8 DEPARTMENTS
A NUMBER OF QUESTIONS THAT NEED TO BE ANSWERED ARE:-

1. WHAT CLASS IS THE NETWORK ADDRESS?

2. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE NEEDED?
3. HOW MANY BITS ARE BORROWED FROM THE HOST PART OF THE
ADDRESS?

4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW MANY OF THESE

ARE USEABLE?
5. WHAT IS THE DEFAULT SUBNET MASK?
6. WHAT IS THE NEW CUSTOMISED SUBNET MASK?
B.O SADIQ

7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL

VALUEABU
OF
EACH SUBNET?
E&CE DEPARTMENT
ZARIA

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SUBNETTING
1. WHAT CLASS IS THE NETWORK ADDRESS?
ANS. ITS A CLASS B ADDRESS
2. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE NEEDED?
ANS. 8 DEPARTMENTS SO WE NEED 8 SUBNETS
3.HOW MANY BITS NEED TO BE BORROWED?
ANS. 4 BITS TO PROVIDE 14 SUBNETS
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW
MANY OF THESE ARE USEABLE?
ANS. 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 16 ARE DEFINED
16 - 2 = 14 ARE USEABLE
5. WHAT IS THE DEFAULT SUBNET MASK?
ANS. 255.255.0.0 OR 11111111.11111111.0.0
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B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

SUBNETTING
6. WHAT IS THE NEW CUSTOMISED SUBNET MASK?
ANS. 128+64+32+16 = 1111 STARTING WITH THE LEFTMOST
SIGNIFICANT BIT VALUE OF THE LEFTMOST HOST OCTET
255.255.240.0 OR 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL VALUE OF EACH SUBNET?
ANS. 138.8.0.0

10001010.00001000.00010000.00000001
TO AND INCLUDING
10001010.00001000.11100000.11111110
138.8.16.1 - 138.8.31.254 - SUBNET 1

138.8.32.1 - 138.8.47.254 - SUBNET 2

138.8.48.1 - 138.8.63.254 - SUBNET 3
ETC
138.8.208.1 - 138.8.223.254 - SUBNET 14
NETWORK, SUBNET AND HOST
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-66

SUBNETTING
8. WHAT IS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF HOSTS?
14 SUBNETS
THE REMAINDER OF THE HOST PART OF THE
ADDRESS IS 12 BITS

WE HAVE 16-4 BORROWED = 12 BITS LEFT FOR

HOSTS
EACH SUBNET CAN HAVE 2 TO THE POWER OF 16 -2
HOSTS
212 -2 = 4094
-2 FOR NETWORK AND BROADCAST ADDRESSES
B.O SADIQ

DEPARTMENT ABU
14 USEABLE E&CE
SUBNETS
XZARIA
4094 USEABLE HOST
ADDRESSES

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SUBNETTING EXERCISE B
WHAT WOULD BE THE CASE IF THE NETWORK
ADMINISTRATOR WERE GIVEN THE FOLLOWING NETWORK
ADDRESS 192.12.8.0, AND THE NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTS
WERE 7.
1. WHAT CLASS IS THE NETWORK ADDRESS?
2. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE NEEDED?
3. HOW MANY BITS ARE BORROWED FROM THE HOST PART OF THE
ADDRESS?
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW MANY OF THESE
ARE USEABLE?
5. WHAT IS THE DEFAULT SUBNET MASK?

6. WHAT IS THE NEW CUSTOMISED SUBNET MASK?

B.O SADIQ

7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL

VALUE
OF
EACH SUBNET?
E&CE DEPARTMENT
ABU
ZARIA
8. WHAT IS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF HOSTS?

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SUBNETTING
1. WHAT CLASS IS THE NETWORK ADDRESS?
CLASS C AS IT IS ABOVE 191
2. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE NEEDED?
7 SUBNETS -WHY NOT USE JUST 3 BITS

3. HOW MANY BITS ARE BORROWED FROM THE HOST PART OF

THE ADDRESS?
4 BITS ARE NEEDED
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW MANY OF
THESE ARE USEABLE?
2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 16 ARE DEFINED - 16 - 2 = 14 ARE USEABLE
5. WHAT IS THE DEFAULT SUBNET MASK?
255.255.255.0 CLASS C
6. WHAT IS THE NEW CUSTOMISED SUBNET MASK?
255.255.255.240
B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

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SUBNETTING
7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL VALUE OF EACH SUBNET?
192.12.8.0
11000000.0001100.00001000.00010000
TO AND INCLUDING
11000000.0001100.00001000.11111110
192.12.8.16 - 192.12.8.31 - SUBNET 1
192.12.8.32 - 192.12.8.47 - SUBNET 2
192.12.8.48 - 192.12.8.63 - SUBNET 3
ETC
192.12.8.208 - 192.8.223 - SUBNET 14
8. WHAT IS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF HOSTS?
14 X (24 -2 = 14)
14 X 14 = 196

NETWORK, SUBNET AND HOST

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

15-70

ANDING FUNCTION
IN ORDER TO ROUTE A DATA PACKET, THE ROUTER MUST
FIRST DETERMINE THE DESTINATION NETWORK/SUBNET
ADDRESS BY PERFORMING A LOGICAL AND USING THE
DESTINATION HOST'S IP ADDRESS AND THE SUBNET
MASK. THE RESULT WILL BE THE NETWORK/SUBNET
ADDRESS.

B.O SADIQ

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

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