Glycolysis:: By: Lee, Yulin & Blessie Estrelles
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Julienne Sanchez-SalazarGlycolysis:: By: Lee, Yulin & Blessie Estrelles
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Julienne Sanchez-SalazarGLYCOLYSIS:
BY: LEE, YULIN & BLESSIE ESTRELLES
Introduction to Glycolysis:
The most pressing need of all cells in the body is for
an immediate source of energy. Some cells such as
brain cells have severely limited storage capacities
for either glucose or ATP, and for this reason, the
blood must maintain a fairly constant supply of
glucose.
It is the metabolic pathway by which glucose (a C6
molecule is converted into two molecules of
pyruvate (a C3 molecule), chemical energy in the
form of of ATP is produced, and NADH- reduced
coenzymes are produced.
SIX- CARBON STAGE OF GLYCOLYSIS (STEP 1-3)
Step 1:
PHOSPHORYLATION:
Formation of glucose 6-Phosphate. Glycolysis begins with the
phosphorylation of glucose to yield glucose 6-phosphate, a glucose
molecules with a phosphate group attached to the hydroxyl oxygen on
carbon 6 ( the carbon atom outside the ring). The phosphate group is from
an ATP molecule. Hexokinase, an enzyme that requires Mg 2+ ion for its
activity, catalyzes the reaction.
Step 2:
IZOMERIZATION:
Formation of fructose 6- Phosphate. Glucose 6phosphate is isomerized to fructose 6- phosphate
by phosphoglucoisomerase.
Step 3:
PHOSPHORYLATION:
Formation of fructose 1,6- biphosphate . Is a phosphorylation
reaction and therefore requires the expenditure of energy. ATP is
the source of the phosphate and the energy. The enzyme involve,
phosphofructokinase, is another enzyme that requires Mg 2+ ion for
its activity. The fructose molecule now contains two phosphate
groups.
THREE- CARBON STAGE OF GLYCOLYSIS (Step 4-10)
Step 4:
Cleavage :
Formation of Two Triose Phosphate. In this step, the reacting C6 species is
split into two C3 (triose) species. Because fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate, the
molecule being split, is unsymmetrical, the two trioses produced are not
identical. One product is dihydroxyacetone phosphate , and the other is
glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate. Aldose is the enzyme that catalyzes this
reaction.
Step 5 : ISOMERIZATION:
Formation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Only one of the two
triosesproduced in step 4, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, is a glycolysis
Intermediate. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate , the other triose, can however,
Be readily converted into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (a ketose) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (an aldose) are
isomers, and the isomerization process from ketose to aldose is catalyzed
by the enzyme triosephosphate isomerase.
Step 6:
OXIDATION AND PHOSPHORYLATION:
Formation of 1,3- Bisphosphoglycerate. In a reaction catalyzed by
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, a phosphate group is added to
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to produce 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. The
hydrogen of the aldehyde group becomes part of NADH.
Step 7:
PHOSPHORYLATION OF ADP:
Formation of 3- Phosphoglycerate . In this step, the diphosphate species
just formed is converted back to a monophosphate species. This is an
ATP- producing step in which the C-1 phosphate group of 1,3
bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to an ADP molecule to form the ATP.
The enzyme involved is phosphoglycerokinase.
Step 8:
IZOMERIZATION:
Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate. In this isomerization step, the
phosphate group of 3-phosphoglycerate is moved from carbon 3 and 2.
the enzyme phosphoglyceromutase catalyzes the exchange of the
phosphate group between the two carbons.
Step 9 :
DEHYDRATION:
Formation of Phosphoenolpyruvate. This is an alcohol dehydration
reaction that proceeds with the enzyme enolase, another Mg2+ requiring enzyme. The result is another compound containing a highenergy phosohate group; the phosphate group is attached to a carbon
atom that is involved in a carbon carbon double bond.
Step 10:
PHOSPHORYLATION OF ADP:
Formation of Pyruvate. In this step, substrate- level phosphorylation
again occurs phosphoenolpyruvate transfer its high- energy
phosphate group to an ADP molecule to produce ATP and pyruvate.
The entry of fructose into the
glycolytic pathway involves
phosphorylation by ATP to
produce fructose 1 phosphate,
which is then split into two
trioses- glyceraldehyde and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
enters glycolysis directly;
glyceraldehyde must be
phosphorylated by ATP to
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
before it enters the pathway.
The entry of galactose into the
glycolytic pathway begins with
its conversion to glucose 1phosphate, which is then
converted to glucose 6phosphate, a glycolysis
intermediate.
ENTRY OF GALACTOSE AND FRUCTOSE INTO
GLYCOLYSIS:
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS:
Glycolysis, like all metabolic pathways, must have control mechanism
associated with it. In glycolysis the control points are steps 1, 3, and 10.
Step 1, the conversion of glucose to glucose 6- phosphate, involves the enzyme
hexo- kinase. This particular enzyme is inhabited by glucose 6-phosphate, the
substance produced by its action .
.
At step 3, where fructose 6-phosphate is converted to fructose 1,6 biphosphate by the
enzyme phosphofructokinase, high concentrations of ATP and citrate inhibit enzyme
activity.
The third control point involves the last step of glycolysis, the conversion
of hosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate.pyruvate kinase, the enzyme needed
at this point, is inhibited by high ATP concentrations
FATES OF PYRUVATE:
The production of pyruvate from glucose (glycolysis) occurs in ta similar
manner in most cell. In contrast, the fate of the pyruvate so produced varies
with cellular conditions and the nature of the organism. Three common fates
for pyruvate are of prime importance: conversion into acetyl CoA, into lactate,
and into ethanol.
OXIDATION TO ACETYL CoA:
Under aerobic (oxygen-rich) conditions, pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA.
Pyruvate formed in the cytosol through glycolysis crosses the two
mitochondrial membranes and enters the mitochondrial matrix, where the
oxidation takes place. The overall reaction, in simplified term, is
The overall reaction process involves four separate steps and requires NAD+,
CoASH, FAD, and two other coenzymes.
Most acetyl CoA molecules produced from pyruvate enter the citric cycle.
Citric acid cycle operations change more NAD+ to its reduced form, NADH.
The NADH from glycolysis, from the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA,
and from the citric acid cyce enters the electrn transfort chain directly.
FERMENTATION PROCESS:
Fermentation is a biochemical process by which NADH is oxidized to NAD=
without the need for oxygen.
Lactate Fermentation:
Is the enzymatic anaerobic reduction of pyruvate to lactat. The sole purpose
of this process is the conversion of NADH to NAD+. The lactate so formed is
converted back to pyruvate when anaerobic conditions are again established
in a cell.
ETHANOL FERMENTATION:
Under anaerobic conditions, several simple organisms, including yeast, possess
the ability to regenerate NAD+ through ethanol, rather tan lactate, production.
Such a process is called ethanol fermentation.
Ethanol fermentation is the enzymatic anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to
ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Ethanol fermentation involving yeast causes bread and related products to rise as
a result of CO2 bubbles being released during baking, .
The first step in conversion of pyruvate to ethanol is a decarboxylation
reaction to produce acetaldehyde.
The second step involves acetaldehyde reduction to produce ethanol.
The overall reaction for the reaction of ethanol from glucose is
obtained by combining the reaction for the conversion of pyruvate
with the net reaction for glycolysis.
Summarizes the relationship between the facts of pyruvate
and the regeneration of NAD+ from NADH
