Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 6th Edition
Chapter 26:
Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations
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Chapter Outline
Introduction
Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
The Grinding Process
Grinding Operations and Machines
Design Considerations for Grinding
Ultrasonic Machining
Finishing Operations
Deburring Operations
Economics of Abrasive Machining and Finishing
Operations
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Introduction
Some manufacturing processes cannot produce the
required dimensional accuracy or surface finish
An abrasive is a small, hard particle having sharp
edges and an irregular shape
Abrasives is removing of small amounts of material
from a surface through a cutting process that produces
tiny chips
Grinding wheels can sharpen
knives and tools
Sandpaper or emery cloth can
smoothen surfaces and remove
sharp corners
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Introduction
1.
2.
3.
4.
Abrasives are hard and used in finishing processes for
heat-treated metals and alloys
Applications include:
Finishing of ceramics and glasses
Cutting off lengths of bars, structural shapes, masonry
and concrete
Removing unwanted weld beads and spatter
Cleaning surfaces with jets of air or water containing
abrasive particles.
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Introduction
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
1.
2.
Abrasives that are commonly used:
Conventional abrasives
Superabrasives
Above abrasives are harder than conventional cuttingtool materials
Cubic boron nitride and diamond are the two hardest
materials known; referred to as superabrasives
Friability defined as the ability of abrasive grains to
fracture into smaller pieces
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
Abrasive Types
Commonly found in nature are emery, corundum
(alumina), quartz, garnet and diamond
Abrasives that have been made synthetically:
1.
Aluminum oxide
2.
Seeded gel
3.
Silicon carbide
4.
Cubic boron nitride
5.
Diamond
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
Abrasive Grain Size
Abrasives are very small when compared to the size of
cutting tools and inserts
Abrasives have sharp edges and allow removal of
small quantities of material
Very fine surface finish and dimensional accuracy can
be obtained using abrasives as tools
Size of an abrasive grain is identified by a grit number
Smaller the grain size, larger the grit number
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives
Abrasiveworkpiece-material Compatibility
Affinity of an abrasive grain to the workpiece material is
important
The less the reactivity of the two materials, the less
wear and dulling of the grains occur during grinding
Recommendations when selecting abrasives:
1.
Aluminum oxide: Carbon steels, ferrous alloys, and
alloy steels.
2.
Silicon carbide: Nonferrous metals, cast irons
3.
Cubic boron nitride: Steels and cast irons
4.
Diamond: Ceramics, cemented carbides, hardened
steels
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
Each abrasive grain removes only a very small amount
of material at a time
High rates of material removal can be achieved when
large number of these grains act together
Done by using bonded abrasives
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
In bonded abrasives, porosity is essential to provide
clearance for produced chips and cooling
Porosity can be observed by the surface of grinding
wheel
For non-porosity, it is fully dense and solid
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
Due to their high cost, only a small volume wheels
consists of superabrasives
Bonded abrasives are indicated by the type of abrasive,
grain size, grade, structure, and bond type
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Grinding Wheels
Cost of grinding wheels depends on the type and size
of the wheel
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Bond Types
1.
2.
Common types of bonds:
Vitrified:
Consist of feldspar and clays
Strong, stiff, porous, and resistant to oils acids, and
water
Resinoid:
Bonding materials are thermosetting resins
Resinoid wheels are more flexible than vitrified
wheels
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Bond Types
3. Reinforced Wheels:
Consist of layers of fiberglass mats of various mesh
sizes
4. Thermoplastic:
Used in grinding wheels
With sol-gel abrasives bonded with thermoplastics
5. Rubber:
Using powder-metallurgy techniques
Lower in cost and are used for small production
quantities
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:
Wheel Grade and Structure
The grade of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its
bond strength
The grade is also referred to as the hardness of a
bonded abrasive
A hard wheel has a stronger bond and/or a larger
amount of bonding material between the grains than a
soft wheel
Structure of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its
porosity
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The Grinding Process
Grinding is a chip-removal process that uses an
individual abrasive grain as the cutting tool
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The Grinding Process
Grinding Forces
Knowledge of grinding forces is essential for:
1.
Estimating power requirements
2.
Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures
and devices.
3.
Determining the deflections that the workpiece
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The Grinding Process
In surface grinding, undeformed chip length and
thickness is approximated by equation
l Dd
4v d
t
VCr D
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The Grinding Process
Grinding Forces
A knowledge of grinding forces is essential for:
1.
Estimating power requirements
2.
Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures
and devices
3.
Determining the workpiece and grinding machine
deflections
Grain force is proportional to the process variables:
v
Grain Force
V
d
UTS
D
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The Grinding Process
Specific Energy
Energy dissipated in producing a grinding chip consists
of energy required from:
1.
Chip formation
2.
Plowing
3.
Friction
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The Grinding Process
EXAMPLE 26.1
Forces in Surface Grinding
A surface-grinding operation is being performed on lowcarbon steel with a wheel of diameter D=250 mm that is
rotating at N=4000 rpm and a width of cut of w=25 mm.
The depth of cut is d=0.05 mm and the feed rate of the
workpiece, is 1.5 m/min. Calculate the cutting force and
the thrust force.
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The Grinding Process
Solution
Forces in Surface Grinding
The material-removal rate (MRR) is
MMR dwv 0.05 25 1500 1875 mm 3
The power consumed is
1
Power u MMR 40 1875 75,000 Nm/min
60
Since power is
Power Tw
250
1
7500 Fc
2
4000
Fc 24 N
2
1000
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The Grinding Process
Solution
Forces in Surface Grinding
Thrust force can be estimated by noting from experimental
data in the technical literature that it is about 30% higher
than the cutting force
Fn 1.3 24 31 N
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The Grinding Process
Temperature
Temperature rise in grinding is important as it can:
1.
Adversely affect the surface properties
2.
Cause residual stresses on the workpiece
3.
Cause distortions due to thermal expansion and
contraction of the workpiece surface
Surface-temperature rise in grinding is
1/ 2
1/ 4 3 / 4 V
T D d
v
Temperature increases with increasing d, D, and V
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The Grinding Process
Sparks
Sparks produced are chips that glow due to exothermic
(heat-producing) reaction of the hot chips with oxygen
in the atmosphere
When heat generated due to exothermic reaction is
high, chips can melt
Tempering
Excessive temperature rise in grinding can cause
tempering and softening of the workpiece surface
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The Grinding Process
Burning
Excessive temperature during grinding may burn the
workpiece surface
A burn is characterized by a bluish color on ground
steel surfaces
Heat Checking
High temperatures in grinding may cause the
workpiece surface to develop cracks
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding-wheel Wear
Attritious Grain Wear
Similar to flank wear in cutting tools
Cutting edges become dull and develop a wear flat
Selection of abrasive is based on the reactivity of the
grain, workpiece hardness and toughness
Grain Fracture
The grain should fracture at a moderate rate
So that new sharp cutting edges are produced
continuously during grinding
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Ratio
Grinding ratio is defined as
Volume of material removed
G
Volume of wheel wear
Higher the force, greater the tendency for the grains to
fracture
Higher the wheel wear, lower the grinding ratio
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Ratio
EXAMPLE 26.2
Action of a Grinding Wheel
A surface-grinding operation is being carried out with the
wheel running at a constant spindle speed. Will the wheel
act soft or hard as the wheel wears down over time?
Assume that the depth of cut, d, remains constant and the
wheel is dressed periodically.
As D becomes smaller, the relative grain force increases,
the wheel acts softer
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The Grinding Process:
Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding Wheels
1.
2.
Dressing is the process of:
Conditioning
Truing
Dressing is required for dulls wheel or when the wheel
becomes loaded
Loading occurs when the porosities on the wheel
surfaces become filled with chips from the workpiece
Dressing techniques and their frequency affect grinding
forces and workpiece surface finish
Grinding wheels can be shaped to the form to be
ground on the workpiece
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The Grinding Process:
Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding Wheels
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The Grinding Process:
Grindability of Materials and Wheel Selection
Grindability of materials is a general indicator of how
easy it is to grind a material
Include quality of the surface produced, surface finish,
surface integrity, wheel wear, cycle time, and overall
economics of the operation
Wheel selection involves shape of the wheel, shape of
the part to be produced and characteristics of the
workpiece material
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Selection of a grinding process and machine depends
on the workpiece shape and features, size, ease of
fixturing, and production rate required
Relative movement of the wheel may be along the
surface of the workpiece or move radially into the
workpiece
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Surface Grinding
Surface grinding involve the grinding of flat surfaces
Workpiece is secured on a magnetic chuck attached to
the worktable of the grinder
Traverse grinding is where the table reciprocates
longitudinally and is fed laterally after each stroke.
In plunge grinding, it involves the wheel moving
radically into the workpiece
Vertical spindles and rotary tables allow a number of
pieces to be ground in one setup
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Cylindrical Grinding
The external cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of
workpieces are ground
Rotating cylindrical workpiece reciprocates laterally
along its axis to cover the width to be ground
Capable of grinding rolls with large diameter
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Cylindrical Grinding
Can also produce shapes in which the wheel is
dressed to the workpiece form to be ground
Non-cylindrical parts can be ground on rotating
workpieces
Workpiece spindle speed is synchronized between the
workpiece and the wheel axis
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Cylindrical Grinding
Thread grinding is done on cylindrical grinders using
specially dressed wheels matching the shape of the
threads
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
EXAMPLE 26.3
Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding
Cycle patterns for a CNC precision grinder
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Internal Grinding
A small wheel is used to grind the inside diameter of
the part
Internal profiles is ground with profile-dressed wheels
that move radially into the workpiece
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Centerless Grinding
A high-production process for continuously grinding
cylindrical surfaces
Workpiece is supported by a blade
Parts with variable diameters can be ground by
centerless grinding called infeed or plunge grinding
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Centerless Grinding
In internal centerless grinding, the workpiece is
supported between three rolls and is ground internally
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Creep-feed Grinding
Grinding can also be used for large-scale metalremoval operations to compete with milling, broaching
and planing
In creep-feed grinding, the wheel depth of cut, d, is
small and the workpiece speed is low
To keep workpiece temperatures low and improve
surface finish, the wheels are softer grade resin bonded
and have an open structure
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Heavy Stock Removal by Grinding
Grinding can also be used for heavy stock removal by
increasing process parameters
The dimensional tolerances are on the same order as
those obtained by most machining processes
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
EXAMPLE 26.4
Grinding versus Hard Turning
Dimensional tolerances and surface finish in hard
turning approaching to those obtained with grinding
Turning requires much less energy than grinding
Cutting fluids not necessary and the machine tools are
less expensive
Work-holding devices for large and slender workpieces
for hard turning is a problem
Tool wear and its control is also a problem
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Other Grinding Operations
Universal tool and cutter grinders are used for grinding
single-point or multipoint tools
Tool-post grinders are self-contained units and
attached to the tool post of a lathe
Swing-frame grinders are used in foundries for grinding
large castings
Portable grinders are driven pneumatically or
electrically
Bench and pedestal grinders are used for the routine
offhand grinding of tools and small parts
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Operations and Machines
Grinding Fluids
Importance of using a fluid:
1.
Reduces temperature rise in the workpiece
2.
Improves part surface finish and dimensional accuracy
3.
Improves the efficiency of the operation
Grinding fluids are
water-based emulsions for
grinding and oils for
thread grinding
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Chatter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Chatter adversely affects surface finish and wheel
performance
Chatter marks on ground surfaces can be identified
from:
Bearings and spindles of the grinding machine
Non-uniformities in the grinding wheel
Uneven wheel wear
Poor dressing techniques
Using grinding wheels that are not balanced properly
External sources
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Chatter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ways to reduce the tendency for chatter in grinding:
Using soft-grade wheels
Dressing the wheel frequently
Changing dressing techniques
Reducing the material-removal rate
Supporting the workpiece rigidly
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The Grinding Process:
Grinding Chatter
Safety in Grinding Operations
Grinding wheels are brittle and when rotate at high
speeds, they can fracture and cause serious injury
There must be care in handling, storage and usage of
grinding wheels
Damage to a grinding wheel can reduce its bursting
speed severely
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Design Considerations for Grinding
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Specific attention should be given to:
Parts should be designed so that they can be mounted
securely
Interrupted surfaces should be avoided as they can
cause vibrations and chatter
Parts for cylindrical grinding should be balanced
Short pieces should be avoided as they may be difficult
to grind
Design kept simple to avoid frequent form dressing of
the wheel
Holes should be avoided
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Ultrasonic Machining
Material is removed from a surface by microchipping
and erosion with loose, fine abrasive grains in a water
slurry
Best suited for materials that are hard and brittle
Form tool is required for each shape to be produced
Materials for abrasive grains are boron carbide,
aluminum oxide or silicon carbide
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Ultrasonic Machining
Rotary Ultrasonic Machining
Abrasive slurry is replaced by metal-bonded diamond
abrasives either impregnated or electroplated on the
tool surface
Tool is vibrated ultrasonically and rotated at the same
time
It is being pressed against the workpiece surface at a
constant pressure
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Ultrasonic Machining
Design Considerations for Ultrasonic Machining
Basic design guidelines:
1.
Avoid sharp profiles, corners, and radii
2.
Holes produced will have some taper
3.
Bottom of the parts should have a backup plate
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Finishing Operations
Coated Abrasives
Coated abrasives are made of aluminum oxide, silicon
carbide and zirconia alumina
Coated abrasives have more open structure than the
abrasives on grinding wheels
They are used to finish flat or curved surfaces of
metallic and nonmetallic parts, metallographic
specimens, and in woodworking
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Finishing Operations
Belt Grinding
Used as belts for high-rate material removal with good
surface finish
Replace conventional grinding operations
Microreplication perform more consistently than
conventional coated abrasives and the temperatures
involved are lower
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Finishing Operations
EXAMPLE 26.5
Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes
Turbine nozzle vanes shown
The vanes were mounted on a fixture and ground dry at
a belt surface speed of 1,800 m/min
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Deburring Operations
1.
2.
3.
4.
Burrs are thin ridges developed along the edges of a
workpiece from operations
Burrs can be detected by simple means or visual
inspection
Burrs have several disadvantages:
Jam and misalignment of parts,
Safety hazard to personnel
Reduce the fatigue life of components
Sheet metal have lower bend ability
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Deburring Operations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Deburring operations include:
Manual deburring with files and scrapers
Mechanical deburring by machining pieces
Wire brushing
Using abrasive belts
Ultrasonic machining
Electropolishing
Electrochemical machining
Magneticabrasive finishing
Vibratory finishing
Shot blasting or abrasive blasting
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Deburring Operations
Vibratory and Barrel Finishing
Used to remove burrs from large numbers of relatively
small workpieces
Container is vibrated or tumbled by various mechanical
means
Impact of individual abrasives and metal particles
removes the burrs and sharp edges from the parts
Can be a dry or a wet process
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Deburring Operations
Shot Blasting
Also called grit blasting
Involves abrasive particles propelling by a high-velocity
jet of air, or by a rotating wheel, onto the surface of the
workpiece
Surface damage can result if the process parameters
are not controlled
Microabrasive blasting consists of small-scale
polishing and etching on bench-type units
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Deburring Operations
Abrasive-flow Machining
Involves the use of abrasive grains that are mixed in a
putty-like matrix
Movement of the abrasive matrix under pressure
erodes away both burrs and sharp corners and
polishes the part
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Deburring Operations
Thermal Energy Deburring
Consist of placing the part in a chamber and injected
with a mixture of natural gas and oxygen
Drawbacks to the process:
1.
Larger burrs tend to form
2.
Thin and slender parts may distort
3.
Does not polish or buff the workpiece surfaces
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Deburring Operations
Robotic Deburring
Deburring and flash removal by programmable robots
Using a force-feedback system for controlling the path
and rate of burr removal
Eliminates tedious and expensive manual labor
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Economics of Abrasive Machining
and Finishing Operations
Abrasive machining and finishing operations are
necessary to achieve high enough dimensional
accuracy or good-quality surface finishes
Abrasive processes are used both as a finishing
process and as a large-scale material-removal
operation
As the surface-finish requirement increases, more
operations are needed and cost increases further
Total cost of abrasive operations depends on part size,
shape, surface finish, dimensional accuracy, machinery,
tooling and labor involved
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Economics of Abrasive Machining
and Finishing Operations
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