UNIT II

JOINING
PROCESSES

WELDING
The process of joining metals by the application of

heat is called welding

A good welded joint is as strong as the parent metal
Can be done with or without applying pressure and
with or with out filler materials
Used extensively in fabrication and erection works

Classification of welding process

Major classification:
Fusion Welding or Non- pressure welding
Filler material is required
Gas, Arc welding
Plastic welding or Pressure welding
Filler materials not required
Forge ,electrical resistance welding
Minor classification:
Autogeneous- no filler material
Homogeneous- same filler material
Heterogeneous different filler material

Types of welding
(i) Gas Welding

Oxy-acetylene

Air-acetylene

Oxy-hydrogen
(ii) Arc welding

Carbon arc

Metal arc

Metal inert gas

Tungsten inert gas

Plasma arc

Submerged arc

Electro-slag

iii) Resistance Welding

Butt Spot Seam
Projection
Percussion
(iv)Thermit Welding
(v)Solid State Welding
Friction
Ultrasonic
Diffusion
Explosive
(vi) Newer Welding
Electron-beam
Laser

(vii)Related Process
Oxy-acetylene cutting
Arc cutting
Hard facing
Brazing
Soldering

Gas welding
Oxy- acetylene welding

Oxy- hydrogen welding

Air- hyrogen welding

Oxy- acetylene welding

Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

Fusion welding performed by a high temperature
flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen
Flame is directed by a welding torch
Filler metal is added
Composition must be similar to base metal
Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation

Oxy- acetylene welding

2 mm to 50 mm; 3200 degree c
Pressure in torch:
Oxygen:
High pressure system 0.1 to 3.5 bar
Low pressure system - 0.5 to 3 bar
Acetylene:
High pressure system 0.66 to 1bar
Low pressure system - up to 0.06 bar

Gas welding Equipments

Gas cylinders
oxygen- black
Acetylene- Maroon

Pressure regulators
Pressure gauges
Hoses
Welding torch
Goggles
Welding gloves
Spark lighter
Wire brush

Flame characteristics
Neutral flame: inner cone & outer cone
Welding steel, cast iron , copper

Oxidizing flame- inner cone & outer cone

Brass & bronze

Carburizing flame-sharp inner cone, white

intermediate cone, bluish outer cone
Low carbon steel, alloy steels

Gas welding technique

Leftward or forward welding

Gas welding technique

Rightward or backward welding

Filler rods
Additional material to weld the weld zone
Available as rod or wire
They can be used bare or coated with flux

Filler rod diameter d= t/2 +1

t- thickness of metal in mm

Gas welding
Advantages
Flame temperature is easily controlled
Cost of equipment is less
Maintenance cost is less
requires very little specialized equipment.
Disadvantages
Not suitable for thick plates
Slow process
Strength og joint is less than arc welding

Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which heat is developed by an
electric arc
The gap between electrode and work piece is 3mm
Temperature is about 5000oc to 6000oc

Transformer or generator supplies current

Depth to which metal is melted is depth of fusion
Flux prevents oxidation and rapid cooling

The depression in the metal is arc carter

Distance btw tip of electrode to bottom of carter is called arc
length

Arc Welding

Arc welding Equipments

A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer(A.C.)

Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
Electrode holder
Electrode
Protective shield
Gloves
Wire brush
Chipping hammer
Goggles

Types of AW Electrodes
Non consumable
Carbon, graphite, tungsten
Atomic hydrogen welding, TIG welding

Consumable electrode:
Bare electrodes
Do not have flux coating
Used to weld wrought iron, mild steel
Used in submerged arc, inert gas welding
Lightly coated electrodes
Flux coating of 1 to 5% of electrode weight
Does not prevent oxidation
Heavily coated electrodes
Flux coating of 15 to 30% of electrode weight
Composed of deoxidizing, slag forming materials

Carbon arc welding

D.C supply and carbon electrode is used
Electrode negative; work piece positive
Steel sheets, copper alloys, aluminum are welded

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding

Consumable electrode is used

Power range from 100 to 400 A
Inert gases like argon or helium is sent through nozzle
Gas shield prevents oxidation
Aluminum, stainless steel are welded
High speed, flux is not necessary

Tungsten Inert Gas(TIG) welding

Non consumable tungsten electrode

Inert gases like argon or helium is sent through nozzle
Filler rods may or may not be used
Aluminum, cast iron, steel are welded
High welding speed

Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma or ionized gas is used to melt metal
Tungsten electrode is kept perpendicular in gas chamber
Nozzle positive; electrode negative
Through nozzle argon gas is sent into the arc and plasma is

formed which melts metal (1400oc)

Helium is sent outer side of the nozzle for gas shielding
Stainless steel, carbon steel, copper are welded

Filler rod not required

Plasma Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc
shielding provided by a cover of granular flux
Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
Electrode and metal are submerged under the flux and hence

welding cannot been seen

Flux will act as shield and form slag
Low carbon, alloy steel

High welding speed

Pressure vessel, boiler fabrication

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Electro slag welding

Welding happens while the temperature increases when current
passes through molten slag
The work piece to be welded are placed in the bottom plate
Moving sliding plates are placed at both ends of the work piece
Flux is poured between work piece and sliding plate
When supply given flux melts and forms slag 2 to 3 mm
Arc stops and current passes from electrode to work piece through
the slag
Temperature increases due to high resistance and the ends of
electrode and metal melts and weld occurs
Boiler plate, turbine shaft can be welded
Stronger welded joint
High speed

Electro slag welding

Resistance Welding (RW)

Parts are joined by heating to plastic state by their
resistance to electric current
Mechanical pressure is applied
Two copper electrodes are used
Heat generated, Q=I2RT
Bars, boxes, pipes are welded

Types of Resistance welding

Spot welding
Seam welding
Butt welding
Projection welding
Stud welding
Percussion butt welding

Spot welding

Spot welding is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are

joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current.
Typically the sheets are in the 0.0255 to 1.25mm thickness range
Copper electrodes are used
Pressure up to 2 KN

Seam welding
Seam welding is a continuous process using electrode wheels on
generally overlapping workpieces
Leak proof tanks, drums, radiators

Butt welding
1.Upset butt welding:
the workpieces are clamped in copper jaws
which acts as electrodes
The edges of the workpieces are in contact
Pressurised by moving the jaws
Bar, rod, pipe

Butt welding
2.flash butt welding:
Air gap between workpieces is maintained
Flash or arc is formed
Automobile body, frames

Projection welding
welding process uses small projections on one or both
components of the weld to localise the heat and pressure, the
projections collapse when the weld is made.
Sheet metals up to 3mm

Stud welding
Stud welding is a form of spot welding where a bolt or
specially formed nut is welded onto another metal part
Gun, trigger, solenoid, timer are used
The stud end has flux coating
Time 1 sec
Mass production

Percussion welding
Percussion welding (PEW) is a type of resistance welding that
blends dissimilar metals together
Percussion welding creates a high temperature arc that is
formed from a short quick electrical discharge.
Discharge at 1.6 mm apart; Time - 0.1s
Percussion welding is similar to flash welding and upset
welding but is generally considered to be more complex

Special welding
Plasma arc welding
Electron beam welding
Laser beam welding
Thermit welding
Friction welding
Diffusion welding

APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
It is used in almost all the branches of industry
and construction. Especially fabrication and
erction steel structures.
Vessels of welded plate construction (Boilers,
Pressure Vessel Tanks and Pipe Lines)
Fastening of Panels and members together into
automobile bodies and also in aviation industry.

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
1. FUSION PROCESSES :
In these processes, the material at the
joint is heated to the molten state and allowed to
solidify to make the joint.
(Ex: Arc Welding, Gas Welding, Thermit Fusion
Welding)
2. PRESSURE PROCESSES:
In these processes, the parts to be joined
are heated to a plastic state ( fusion may occur to a
limited extent) and force together with external
pressure to make the joint.
(Ex: Forge Welding, Thermit Pressure Welding,
Pressure Gas Welding, Electric Resistance Welding

TYPES OF WELD JOINTS

Butt Joint
Lap Joint
T-Joint
Corner Joint

TYPES OF WELDS
Bead Weld
Fillet Weld
Groove Weld
Spot Weld

EDGE PREPARATION
Edge preparation is necessary when
thickness increases so that heat would
be able to penetrate the entire depth

WELDING POSITIONS
1.Horizontal Welding
2. Flat Welding
3.Vertical Welding
4.Over Head Welding

Diversity of welding processes

welding
Solid state welding

Fusion welding

Soldering and brazing

Resistance welding

Soldering

Cold welding

Brazing

Friction welding
Electrical energy

Diffusion welding

Chemical energy

Flash welding

Oxyacetylene welding

Ultrasonic welding

Oxyfuel gas welding

Explosion welding

Consumable electrode

Non consumable
electrode

Gas metal arc welding

Shielded metal arc welding

Submerged arc welding
Flux cored arc welding
Electrogas welding
Electroslag welding

Other processes
Laser beam welding

Gas tungsten arc welding

Atomic hydrogen welding
Plasma arc welding

Thermit welding
Electron beam welding

Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of
the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work
Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough
to melt any metal
Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint

What is an Electric Arc?

An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
through which the current flows
To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance.

Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near
electrode tip, and as electrode is moved along
joint, molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

Consumable consumed during welding
process
Source of filler metal in arc welding
Nonconsumable not consumed during
welding process
Filler metal must be added separately

Consumable Electrodes
Forms of consumable electrodes
Welding rods are 9 to 18 inches and 3/8
inch or less in diameter and must be
changed frequently
Weld wire can be continuously fed from
spools with long lengths of wire, avoiding
frequent interruptions
In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by arc and added to weld joint as
filler metal

Nonconsumable Electrodes
Made of tungsten which resists melting
Gradually depleted during welding
(vaporization is principal mechanism)
Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate
wire fed into weld pool

Arc Shielding
At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen in air
Mechanical properties of joint can be
seriously degraded by these reactions
To protect operation, arc must be shielded
from surrounding air in AW processes
Arc shielding is accomplished by:
Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
Flux

Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal
Provides protective atmosphere for welding
Stabilizes arc
Reduces spattering

Various Flux Application Methods

Pouring granular flux onto welding operation
Stick electrode coated with flux material that
melts during welding to cover operation
Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in
the core and released as electrode is
consumed

Power Source in Arc Welding

Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)
AC machines less expensive to purchase
and operate, but generally restricted to
ferrous metals
DC equipment can be used on all metals
and is generally noted for better arc control
In DC Machines two types of Polarity is
there. One is DCSP another one is DCRP

WELDING PROCESSES
1. Arc Welding (Consumable)
2. Arc Welding (Non Consumable Electrode)
3. Other/Special Fusion Welding Processes
4. Resistance Welding
5. Gas Welding
6. Solid State Welding

Consumable Electrode AW Processes

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Electrogas Welding
Electroslag Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a
filler metal rod coated with chemicals that
provide flux and shielding

Sometimes called "stick welding"

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

SMAW Applications
Used for steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys
Not used or rarely used for aluminum
and its alloys, copper alloys, and
titanium

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as
electrode and shielding accomplished by
flooding arc with a gas
Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun
Shielding gases include inert gases such as
argon and helium for aluminum welding, and
active gases such as CO2 for steel welding
Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

GMAW Advantages over SMAW

Better arc time because of continuous wire
electrode
Sticks must be periodically changed in
SMAW
Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
Higher deposition rates
Eliminates problem of slag removal
Can be readily automated

Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to
overcome limitations of stick electrodes
Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing
(in coils) containing flux and other ingredients
(e.g., alloying elements) in its core
Two versions:
Self-shielded FCAW - core includes
compounds that produce shielding gases
Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally
applied shielding gases

Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Figure 31.6 Flux-cored arc welding. Presence or absence of externally

supplied shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1) self-shielded,
in which core provides ingredients for shielding, and (2) gas-shielded,
which uses external shielding gases.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding provided by a
cover of granular flux
Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of
arc by gravity from a hopper
Completely submerges operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding.

SAW Applications and Products

Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
I-beams)
Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
Welded components for heavy machinery
Most steels (except hi C steel)
Not good for nonferrous metals

Electrogas Welding (EGW)

Uses a continuous consumable electrode, either
flux-cored wire or bare wire with externally
supplied shielding gases, and molding shoes to
contain molten metal
When flux-cored electrode wire is used and no
external gases are supplied, then special case
of self-shielded FCAW
When a bare electrode wire used with shielding
gases from external source, then special case
of GMAW

Electrogas Welding

Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire: (a) front view

with molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b) side view
showing molding shoes on both sides.

Non-consumable Electrode Processes

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
and an inert gas for arc shielding
Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
In Europe, called "WIG welding"
Used with or without a filler metal
When filler metal used, it is added to
weld pool from separate rod or wire
Applications: aluminum and stainless steel
most common

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding.

Advantages / Disadvantages of GTAW

Advantages:
High quality welds for suitable applications
No spatter because no filler metal through
arc
Little or no post-weld cleaning because no
flux
Disadvantages:
Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted
plasma arc is directed at weld area
Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle
that focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas
(argon) into arc region to form a high velocity,
intensely hot plasma arc stream
Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C
(50,000F), due to constriction of arc,
producing a plasma jet of small diameter and
very high energy density

Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma arc welding (PAW).

Advantages / Disadvantages of PAW

Advantages:
Good arc stability
Better penetration control than other AW
High travel speeds
Excellent weld quality

Can be used to weld almost any metals

Disadvantages:
High equipment cost
Larger torch size than other AW
Tends to restrict access in some joints

Other Fusion Welding Processes / Special

Welding Processes
FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,
resistance, or oxyfuel welding
Use unique technologies to develop heat for
melting
Applications are typically unique
Processes include:
Electron beam welding
Laser beam welding
Thermit welding

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Fusion welding process in which heat for welding
is provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity
stream of electrons striking work surface
Electron beam gun operates at:
High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to
accelerate electrons
Beam currents are low (measured in
milliamps)
Power in EBW not exceptional, but power
density is

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

EBW Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:
High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
Limited heat affected zone, low thermal
distortion
High welding speeds
No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:
High equipment cost
Precise joint preparation & alignment required
Vacuum chamber required
Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays

Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

Fusion welding process in which coalescence is
achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint
Laser = "light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation"
LBW normally performed with shielding gases
to prevent oxidation
Filler metal not usually added
High power density in small area, so LBW often
used for small parts

LASER BEAM WELDING

Comparison: LBW vs. EBW

No vacuum chamber required for LBW
No x-rays emitted in LBW
Laser beams can be focused and directed by
optical lenses and mirrors
LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW
Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in),
whereas EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)

Thermit Welding (TW)

FW process in which heat for coalescence is
produced by superheated molten metal from
the chemical reaction of thermite
Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine
powders that produce an exothermic reaction
when ignited
Also used for incendiary bombs
Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
Process used for joining, but has more in
common with casting than welding

Thermit Welding

Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated

metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.

TW Applications
Joining of railroad rails
Repair of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings
Weld surface is often smooth enough that no
finishing is required

Resistance Welding (RW)

A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded
Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)

Resistance Welding

Resistance welding,
showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.

Advantages / Drawbacks of RW
Advantages:
No filler metal required
High production rates possible
Lends itself to mechanization and automation
Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
High initial equipment cost
Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

Components in Resistance Spot/Butt Welding

Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
Two opposing electrodes
Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration

Resistance Spot/Butt Welding (RSW)

Resistance welding process in which fusion of
faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes
Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of
spot welds
Widely used in mass production of
automobiles, appliances, metal furniture, and
other products made of sheet metal
Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
Annual production of automobiles in the
world is measured in tens of millions of units

Spot/Butt Welding Cycle

(a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current in cycle (1)
parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close, force applied,
(3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.

Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a
series of overlapping spot welds along lap
joint
Can produce air-tight joints
Applications:
Gasoline tanks
Automobile mufflers
Various other sheet metal containers

Resistance Seam Welding

Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen
OFW employs several types of gases, which is
the primary distinction among the members of
this group
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting
torches to cut and separate metal plates and
other parts
Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding

Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

Fusion welding performed by a high temperature
flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen
Flame is directed by a welding torch
Filler metal is sometimes added
Composition must be similar to base metal
Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation

Oxyacetylene Welding

A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

Acetylene (C2H2)
Most popular fuel among OFW group because
it is capable of higher temperatures than any
other - up to 3480C (6300F)
Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:
First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat
Second stage reaction (outer envelope):
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat

Oxyacetylene Torch
Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner
cone, while outer envelope spreads out and
shields work surfaces from atmosphere

The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch indicating

temperatures achieved.

Alternative Gases for OFW

Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
Hydrogen
Propylene
Propane
Natural Gas

Solid State Welding (SSW)

Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:
Pressure alone, or
Heat and pressure
If both heat and pressure are used, heat
is not enough to melt work surfaces
For some SSW processes, time is also a
factor
No filler metal is added
Each SSW process has its own way of creating
a bond at the faying surfaces

Success Factors in SSW

Essential factors for a successful solid state
weld are that the two faying surfaces must be:
Very clean
In very close physical contact with each
other to permit atomic bonding

SSW Advantages over FW Processes

If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so
metal around joint retains original properties
Many SSW processes produce welded joints
that bond the entire contact interface between
two parts rather than at distinct spots or seams
Some SSW processes can be used to bond
dissimilar metals, without concerns about
relative melting points, thermal expansions,
and other problems that arise in FW

Pressure / Solid State Welding Processes

Forge welding
Cold welding
Roll welding
Hot pressure welding
Diffusion welding
Explosion welding
Friction welding
Ultrasonic welding

Forge Welding
Welding process in which components to be
joined are heated to hot working temperature
range and then forged together by hammering
or similar means
Historic significance in development of
manufacturing technology
Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when
blacksmiths learned to weld two pieces of
metal
Of minor commercial importance today except
for its variants

Roll Welding (ROW)

SSW process in which pressure sufficient to
cause coalescence is applied by means of
rolls, either with or without external heat
Variation of either forge welding or cold
welding, depending on whether heating of
workparts is done prior to process
If no external heat, called cold roll welding
If heat is supplied, hot roll welding

Roll Welding

Roll welding (ROW).

Roll Welding Applications

Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy
steel for corrosion resistance
Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
"Sandwich" coins for U.S mint

Diffusion Welding (DFW)

SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in
a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur
Temperatures 0.5 Tm
Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state
diffusion
Limitation: time required for diffusion can range
from seconds to hours

DFW Applications
Joining of high-strength and refractory metals
in aerospace and nuclear industries
Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar
metals
For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of
different metal is often sandwiched between
base metals to promote diffusion

Explosion Welding (EXW)

SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive
No filler metal used
No external heat applied
No diffusion occurs - time is too short
Bonding is metallurgical, combined with
mechanical interlocking that results from a
rippled or wavy interface between the metals

Explosive Welding
Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals,
in particular to clad one metal on top of a
base metal over large areas
Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the parallel
configuration, and (2) during detonation of the explosive
charge.

Friction Welding (FRW)

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved
by frictional heat combined with pressure
When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used
Process yields a narrow HAZ
Can be used to join dissimilar metals
Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production

Friction Welding

Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought
into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial
pressure applied; and (4) weld created.

Applications / Limitations of FRW

Applications:
Shafts and tubular parts
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas
Limitations:
At least one of the parts must be rotational
Flash must usually be removed
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must
be taken into consideration in product design)

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

Two components are held together, oscillatory
shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are
applied to interface to cause coalescence
Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface
films to allow intimate contact and strong
metallurgical bonding between surfaces
Although heating of surfaces occurs,
temperatures are well below Tm
No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
such as aluminum and copper

Ultrasonic Welding

Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for a lap joint;

and (b) close-up of weld area.

USW Applications
Wire terminations and splicing in electrical
and electronics industry
Eliminates need for soldering
Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
Assembly of small parts in automotive
industry