BASIC ELECTRONICS
Fundamental of Solid States
Principles
Shell
Electron
Nucleus
Basic Structure of Atom
Silicon
Carbon
2, 4
VALENCE SHELL
• Determine the conductivity of atom
• Contain maximum of 8 electrons
• If one electron - perfect conductor
• If eight electrons (complete valence shell) – insulator
Conductivity decreases with an increase the number of
valence electron.
SEMICONDUCTOR (Neither conductor nor insulator)
If valence shell has 4 electrons
It is neither conductor nor a good insulator
Commonly used semiconductor material
Silicon ( Si )
Germanium (Ge )
Carbon ( C )
Silicon and Germanium - used in production of solid state components
Carbon – used in production of resistor and potentiometer.
CHARGE AND CONDUCTION
When no outside force to cause conduction
electrons = protons
net-charge = zero
If atom losses one valence electron - therefore atom has
has fewer electron, hence net charge is POSITIVE
If atom in valence shell gains one electron -> atom contains more
electron -> net charge is NEGATIVE
Fundamental Law on Relationship Between Electrons and
Orbital Shell
Electron travel in orbital shell. They cannot orbit the nucleus
in the space that exist between any two orbital shells.
Each orbital shell relates the specific energy. Thus,
all the electrons travelling in a given orbital shell contain the same
relative amount of energy . [ Greater the distance from nucleus ,
the greater the energy level that is associates with a given orbital shell.
Valence electron – having higher energy levels].
For electron to jump from one shell to another, it must absorb enough
energy to make up the difference its initial energy level and that of the
shell to which it is jumping.
If an electron absorb enough energy to jump from one shell to another,
it will eventually given up energy it absorb and return to a lower-energy shell.
Atom Energy Level
To jump from energy level E3 (0.7 eV) to conduction
band E4 (1.8 eV), the energy required is
1.8 eV – 0.7 eV = 1.1 eV.
Types Energy
Conductors 0.4 eV
Semiconductor 1.1 eV
Insulator 1.8 eV
When electron absorbs enough energy to jump from
valence shell to the conduction band - electrons is said to be
in an excited state. An excited electron will eventually give up
the energy it absorb and return to its original energy level
(in the form of light or heat)
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the method by atoms complete their
valence shell by ‘sharing’ valence electrons with another
atoms
Basis of Covalent
Result of Bonding
Si
Atom held together
forming solid substance
Si
Si Atom – electrically stable
Si The complete shell cause
the silicon to act as
insulator
Si
Silicon or Germanium
- form as crystal
Silicon Covalent Bonding
Conduction
Valence electrons absorb enough energy jump from valence band
to conduction band
As result a GAP is left in the covalent band (known as ‘hole’)
For every conduction band electrons there must exist a valence band hole.
Conduction band
Valence band
Recombination - when free electron return to holes in covalent bond
Life time – time between generation of electron-hole pair and recombination.
Conduction Versus Temperature
At room temperature
Thermal energy (heat) cause the constant creation of electron – hole
pairs with their subsequent recombination.
Therefore a semiconductor always has some number of free
electrons even when no voltage is applied
Increase temperature -- more electron absorb energy to break
free of their covalent bond (increase free electrons)
Decrease temperature -- less free electrons
No free electron at absolute temperature – 273.16 C (0 Kelvin).
Conductivity in a semiconductor varies directly with temperature.
Doping
Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic (pure)
silicon or germanium to improve conductivity of the semiconductor.
A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor
Two types of doping
trivalent - element that has 3 free electrons
pentavalent --- element that has 5 free electrons
When trivalent atom are added to intrinsic semiconductor; the resulting
material is called P-type material.
If pentavalent atom are added to intrinsic semiconductor ; the resulting
material is N-type material.
Trivalent Pentavalent
Al P
Ga As
Boron (B) Antimony (Sb)
Indium (In) Bismuth (Bi)
Pentavalent impurities
N-type Material
add to
Silicon or Germanium
Si Si
Result in access of
one electron in covalent
Even with extra As bond
electron, the
material still
electrically Si
Si Extra electron can be made
neutral because to flow through the material
atom still have with little difficulty
equal photons as
electrons
Extra covalent bond electron
Energy Diagram – N-type
electron
Energy
Conduction band
hole
Valence band
In N-type material : More electrons in conduction band than holes in
valence band
The electrons are called majority carriers
while valence band holes are called minority carriers
P-type Material
hole
Intrinsic silicon
add to
Si Si
trivalent element
Al
P – type material
Si
Si
Energy Diagram – P-type
electron
Energy
Conduction band
hole
Valence band
In P-type material : Less electrons in conduction band than holes in
valence band
The holes are called majority carriers
while valence band electrons are called minority carriers
END
