Solid state

welding
Presented by: Anas Abu Saleh
Shahira AlMuhaisen
Supervised by: Dr. Mohammed Aljarrah
Definition
It is a group of welding processes which
produces coalescence at temperatures
essentially below the melting point of the
base materials being joined, without the
addition of brazing filler metal.



Introduction
In solid state welding, coalescence is
achieved by :
1) pressure alone
2) heat and pressure
For some solid state processes time is a
factor.
Introduction (Cont.)
If both heat and pressure are used, the
amount of heat by itself is not sufficient
to cause melting of the work surfaces. In
other words fusion of the parts would not
occur using only the heat that is
externally applied in these processes. In
some cases the combination of heat and
pressure, or the particular manner in
which pressure alone is applied,
generates sufficient energy to cause
localized melting of the faying surfaces.

General Considerations in
Solid-State Welding
In most of the solid-state processes, a
metallurgical bond is created with little or no
melting of the base metals.
To metallurgically bond two similar or
dissimilar metals, the two metals must be
brought into intimate contact by the presence
of chemical films, gases, oils so that their
cohesive atomic forces attract each other.
In order for atomic bonding to succeed, these
films and other substances must be removed.

General Considerations in
Solid-State Welding (Cont.)
To summarize, the essential ingredients
for a successful solid-state weld are that
the two surfaces must be very clean, and
they must be brought into very close
physical contact with each other to
permit atomic bonding.
Advantages of solid state
welding processes
Welding processes that do not involve melting have
several advantages over fusion welding processes;
If no melting occurs, then there is no heat-
affected zone, and so the metal surrounding the
joint retains its original properties.
Many of these processes produce welded joints
that comprise the entire contact interface
between the two parts, rather than at distinct
spots or seams, as in most fusion-welding
operations.
Advantages of solid state
welding processes (Cont.)
Some of these processes are quite applicable to
bonding dissimilar metals, without concerns about
relative thermal expansions, conductivities, and
other problems that usually arise when dissimilar
metals are melted and then solidified during
joining.
Solid State-Welding Processes
This group of welding processes includes
forge welding,
cold welding,
roll welding,
hot pressure welding,
diffusion welding,
explosion welding,
friction welding,
ultrasonic welding.
Forge welding
Forge welding : is a welding process in
which the components to be joined are
heated to hot working temperatures and
then forged together by hammer or other
means.

Cold welding
Cold welding (CW) : is a solid-state welding
process accomplished by applying high
pressure between clean contacting surfaces
at room temperature (cleaning is usually
done by degreasing and wire brushing
immediately before joining).


The process
At least one of the metals to be welded,
and preferably both, must be very ductile
and free of work hardening (e.g Al and
Cu)
The applied compression forces in the
process result in cold working of the
metal parts, reducing thickness by as
much as 50%; but they also cause
localized plastic deformation at the
contacting surfaces, resulting in
coalescence.
The Process (Cont.)
For small parts, the forces may be applied
by simple hand operated tools. For
heavier work, powered presses are
required to exert the necessary force.
No heat is applied from external sources
in CW, but the deformation process raises
the temperature of the work somewhat.
Applications of CW include making
electrical connections.

Roll welding
Roll welding (ROW) is a solid-state
welding process in which pressure
sufficient to cause coalescence is applied
by means of rolls, either with or without
external application of heat.

If no external heat is supplied, the
process is called cold roll welding; if heat
is supplied, the term hot roll welding is
used.
Applications of roll welding
include
Cladding stainless steel to mild or low
alloy steel for corrosion resistance,
making bimetallic strips for measuring
temperature.

Hot Pressure Welding
It is another variation of forge welding in
which coalescence occurs from the
application of heat and pressure
sufficient to cause considerable
deformation of the base metals.
Notes:
The deformation disrupts the surface
oxide film, thus leaving clean metal to
establish a good bond between the two
parts.

Time must be allowed for diffusion to
occur across the faying surfaces.
Notes (Cont.)
The operation is usually carried out in a vacuum
chamber or in the presence of a shielding medium.

Principal applications of HPW are in the aerospace
industry.
Motor drives upper and lower pressure rollers to rotate
through reduction gearbox and chain. Slide carriage
drives the hot wedge and insert it between the two
base materials, at the same time lever presses pressure
rollers and engages the two fused base materials.

Diffusion Welding
It is a solid-state welding process that
results from the application of heat
and pressure, usually in a controlled
atmosphere, with sufficient time
allowed for diffusion and coalescence
to occur.
Temperatures are well below the
melting points of the metals
(about 0.5 T", is the maximum), and
plastic deformation at the surfaces is
minimal.

Notes:
The primary mechanism of coalescence is
solid-state diffusion, which involves
migration of atoms across the interface
between contacting surfaces.

Applications of DFW include the joining of
high-strength and refractory metals in the
aerospace and nuclear industries.


Notes: (Cont.)
The process is used to join both similar and
dissimilar metals, and in the latter case a filler
layer of a different metal is often sandwiched
between the two base metals to promote
diffusion.

The time for diffusion to occur between the faying
surfaces can be significant, requiring more than an
hour in some applications.

Diffusion welding
When the atoms from one sided of the
joint diffuse into the other side, the
composition changes in both sides of the
joint as illustrated here since atoms from
both sides inter-diffuse into the other
side.

Diffusion welding
If the material is the same on both sides,
a symmetric inter-diffusion curve such as
illustrated here results because the
diffusion coefficient is the same on both
sides. But when different materials are
welded together, each having their won
diffusion coefficient (diffusion rate) into
the other material, some very different
compositions curves can result.


Explosion welding
Explosion welding (EXW) : is a solid-state
welding process in which rapid
coalescence of two metallic surfaces is
caused by the energy of a detonated
explosive.
It is commonly used to bond two
dissimilar metals.
Explosion welding (Cont.)
Applications include production of
corrosion-resistant sheet and plate stock
for making processing equipment in the
chemical and petroleum industries.
Notes
No filler metal is used in EXW.
No external heat is applied.
No diffusion occurs during the process
because the process time is too short.
Notes (Cont.)
The nature of the bond is metallurgical,
and sometimes combined with a
mechanical interlocking that results from
a rippled or wavy interface between the
metals.
The process
The high-speed collision causes the
surfaces at the point of contact to
become fluid.
The colliding surfaces are thus chemically
clean, and the fluid behavior of the metal
provides intimate contact between the
surfaces, leading to metallurgical
bonding.
The process (Cont.)
A buffer layer (e.g., rubber, plastic) is
often used between the explosive and
the flyer plate to protect its surface.
The process (Cont.)
Variations in collision velocity and impact
angle during the process can result in a
wavy or rippled interface between the
two metals.
This kind of interface strengthens the
bond because it increases the contact
area and tends to mechanically interlock
the two surfaces.

Friction welding
Friction welding (FRW) : is a solid state
welding process in which coalescence is
achieved by frictional heat combined with
pressure.
The Process
The friction is induced by mechanical
rubbing between the two surfaces,
usually by rotation of one part relative to
the other, to raise the temperature at the
joint interface to the hot working range
for the metals involved.
Then the parts are driven toward each
other with sufficient force to form a
metallurgical bond.
The Process (Cont.)
The flash must be subsequently trimmed
(e.g., by turning) to provide a smooth
surface in the weld region.
When properly carried out, no melting
occurs at the faying surfaces.
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases
are normally used.
The total cycle for this operation is about
20 seconds.
Types Of Friction Welding

1. Continuous drive friction welding

2. Inertia friction welding.
Continuous drive friction welding
One part is driven at a constant rotational
speed and forced into contact with the
stationary part at a certain force level so
that friction heat is generated at the
interface.
When the proper hot working
temperature has been reached, braking is
applied to stop the rotation abruptly, and
simultaneously the pieces are forced
together.

Inertia Friction Welding
The rotating part is connected to a
flywheel, which is brought up to a
predetermined speed.
Then the flywheel is disengaged from the
drive motor, and the parts are forced
together.
The kinetic energy stored in the flywheel
is dissipated in the form of friction heat
to cause coalescence at the contact
surfaces.

Notes:
It is applied in the welding of various
shafts and tubular parts in industries such
as automotive, aircraft, farm equipment,
petroleum, and natural gas.
The process yields a narrow heat-affected
zone and can be used to join dissimilar
metals.
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which
must be taken into consideration in
product design).
Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic welding (USW) : is a solid-state
welding process in which two components
are held together under modest clamping
force, and oscillatory shear stresses of
ultrasonic frequency are applied to the
interface to cause coalescence.
The Process
The oscillatory motion between the two
parts breaks down any surface films to
allow intimate contact and strong
metallurgical bonding between the
surfaces.
The resulting temperatures at contacting
surfaces, which occur due to interfacial
rubbing and plastic deformation, are well
below the melting point.
The Process (Cont.)
The oscillatory motion is transmitted to
the upper work part by a sonotrode.
It is coupled to an ultrasonic transducer
which converts electrical power into high-
frequency vibratory motion.
Clamping pressures are well below those
used in cold welding and produce no
significant plastic deformation between
the surfaces.
The Process (Cont.)
Welding times under these conditions are
less than 1 sec.
No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
are required.

Notes
USW operations are generally limited to
soft materials such as aluminum and
copper.
Welding harder materials causes rapid
wear of the sonotrode.
Work parts should be relatively small, and
welding thicknesses less than 3 mm.
Notes (Cont.)
Applications include wire terminations
and splicing in electrical and electronics
industries (eliminates the need for
soldering), assembly of aluminum sheet-
metal panels, welding of tubes to sheets
in solar panels, and other tasks in small
parts assembly.