Machine Design

What is the importance of Machine Design for

engineers?
What is Machine Design?
Creation of new and better machines AND
Improving existing ones
So that it is economical in the cost of production and operation.
Machine Design
Requirement
Model
(Rough idea)
Creation
How a design is born
marketability
Availability of
FUNDS
Available
material
Manufacturing
resources
Analysis
Market
survey
Aesthetic
Ease of
handling
Safety
Economical
Recyclability
Force/stress
Material/s
used
Sizes
What is the basic knowledge required for
Machine Design?
Mathematics
Engineering Mechanics
Strength of Materials





Mathematics
Engineering Mechanics
Strength of Materials
Workshop Processes
Engineering Drawing
Mathematics
Engineering Mechanics
Strength of Materials
Workshop Processes
Engineering Drawing
Computing
Finite Element Analysis, Computational Fluid Dynamics etc
Mechanics of Machines
Mechanics of Materials
Fluid Mechanics & Thermodynamics
Important considerations in Machine Design
1. Type of LOAD and STRESSes caused by the load
Steady loads
Dead loads
Live loads
Variable loads
Shock loads (suddenly)
Impact loads (applied
with some velocity)
Stress and strain
(Tensile, compressive, shear)
Thermal stresses
Torsional stresses
Bending stress
Important considerations in Machine Design..
2. KINEMATICS of the machine (Motion of the parts)
Find the simplest arrangement that would give the most
efficient motion that is required.
3. Selection of MATERIALs
Knowledge of the properties of the materials and their
behaviour under working conditions is required.
Strength, hardness, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance
to heat and corrosion, electrical conductivity, machinability,
etc.
Important considerations in Machine Design..
3. Selection of MATERIALs
Physical properties: Density, Melting point, Elec/thermal properties
Mechanical properties:
STRENGTH resist externally applied loads without breaking or yielding
STIFFNESS resist deformation under stress
ELASTICITY regain original shape once the force is removed
PLASTICITY property which retains deformation (required for forging
etc)
DUCTILITY ability to be drawn into a wire by a tensile force
BRITTLENESS sudden breaking with minimum distortion
TOUGHNESS resist fracture due to high impact load
CREEP deformation under stress and high temperature
FATIGUE ability to withstand cyclic stresses
HARDNESS resistance to wear, scratching, deformation, machinability
etc
Metal
Non-metal
Ferrous Non-ferrous
Important considerations in Machine Design..
4. Form and size of the parts
Use I-beam or Angle-iron?

The size will be determined by the forces/torques
applied (stresses on the object) and the material used
such that failure (fracture or deformation) would not
occur
Design Process
General procedure in Machine Design..
Detailed drawing
Need or aim
Synthesis
Analysis of the FORCES
Material selection
Design of elements
Modification
Recognize and specify the problem
Select the mechanism that would give the desired
motion and form the basic model with a sketch etc
Determine the stresses and thereby the
sizes of components s.t. failure or
deformation does not occur
Modify sizes to ease construction & reduce overall cost
Production


STRESS AND STRAIN
DIRECT OR NORMAL STRESS
When a force is transmitted through a body,
the body tends to change its shape or
deform. The body is said to be strained.

Direct Stress = Applied Force (F)
Cross Sectional Area (A)

Units: Usually N/m
2
(Pa), N/mm
2
, MN/m
2
,
GN/m
2
or N/cm
2

Note: 1 N/mm
2
= 1 MN/m
2
= 1 MPa

Direct Stress Contd.
Direct stress may be tensile or compressive,
c
and result from forces acting perpendicular
to the plane of the cross-section

c

Tension
Compression

Direct or Normal Strain

When loads are applied to a body, some
deformation will occur resulting to a change
in dimension.
Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile
loading force, F. If the bar extension is dl
and its original length (before loading) is L,
then tensile strain is:
Direct or Normal Strain Contd.
dl
F
F
L
Direct Strain ( ) = Change in Length
Original Length
i.e. = dl/L

Direct or Normal Strain Contd.

As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is
dimensionless.
Similarly, for compression by amount, dl:
Compressive strain = - dl/L
Note: Strain is positive for an increase in
dimension and negative for a reduction in
dimension.

Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Shear stresses are produced by
equal and opposite parallel forces
not in line.
The forces tend to make one part
of the material slide over the other
part.
Shear stress is tangential to the
area over which it acts.

Shear Stress and Shear Strain Contd.
P Q
S
R
F
D D
A B
C
C
L
x

Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an element or

rectangular block as above. The shear strain, (gamma) is given as:
= x/L = tan



Shear Stress and Shear Strain Concluded
For small ,


Shear strain then becomes the change in the
right angle.
It is dimensionless and is measured in
radians.

Elasticity and Hookes Law

All solid materials deform when they are
stressed, and as stress is increased,
deformation also increases.
If a material returns to its original size and
shape on removal of load causing
deformation, it is said to be elastic.
If the stress is steadily increased, a point is
reached when, after the removal of load, not
all the induced strain is removed.
This is called the elastic limit.
Hookes Law
States that providing the limit of
proportionality of a material is not exceeded,
the stress is directly proportional to the
strain produced.
If a graph of stress and strain is plotted as
load is gradually applied, the first portion of
the graph will be a straight line.
The slope of this line is the constant of
proportionality called modulus of Elasticity,
E or Youngs Modulus.
It is a measure of the stiffness of a material.

Hookes Law
Modulus of Elasticity, E =
Direct stress
Direct strain

Also: For Shear stress: Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus, G =
Shear stress
Shear strain

Equation For Extension
This equation for extension is very important
From the above equations:

E
F A
dl L
F L
A dl
dl
F L
A E

/
/

Factor of Safety
The load which any member of a machine
carries is called working load, and stress
produced by this load is the working stress.
Obviously, the working stress must be less
than the yield stress, tensile strength or the
ultimate stress.
This working stress is also called the
permissible stress or the allowable stress or
the design stress.
Factor of Safety Contd.
Some reasons for factor of safety include the
inexactness or inaccuracies in the estimation
of stresses and the non-uniformity of some
materials.

Factor of safety =
Ultimate or yield stress
Design or working stress

Note: Ultimate stress is used for materials e.g. concrete which do not
have a well-defined yield point, or brittle materials which behave in a
linear manner up to failure. Yield stress is used for other materials e.g.
steel with well defined yield stress.



Lateral Strain and Poissons Ratio


Under the action of a longitudinal stress, a
body will extend in the direction of the stress
and contract in the transverse or lateral
direction
(see Fig. below).
The reverse occurs under a compressive
load.
Stress Effects
P
P
Longitudinal Tensile Stress Effect
Longitudinal Compressive Stress Effect
P P
Poissons Ratio
Lateral strain is proportional to the longitudinal strain,
with the constant of proportionality called Poissons ratio with symbol,

.

Mathematically,

Lateral strain
Direct or longitudinal strain



For most metals, the range of

is 0.28 to 0.33.
Classification of Engineering Materials

Metals and their alloys
1. Ferrous metals 2. Non-ferrous metals
cast iron, steel, copper, brass, Zinc
Non metals such as glass, rubber, Plastic

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Choice of Materials for Engineering
purposes

1. Availability of materials
2. Suitability of materials for working conditions in
services
3. Cost of the materials


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Mechanical Properties of Metals
Strength ability of a material to resist the
externally applied forces without breaking
Stiffness- ability of a material to resist
deformation under stress
Elasticity regain its original shape after
deformation when external forces are
removed
Ductility property of a material enabling it to
draw into wire when tensile force is applied
Brittleness property of the material opposite
to ductility

Mechanical Properties of Metals
Toughness- property of the material to resist
fracture due to high impact loads
Resilience property of the material to absorb
energy and to resist shock and impact loads
Creep when subjected to constant stress at high
temperature for a long period it will undergo a
slow and permanent deformation
Malleability special case of ductility which
permits materials to be rolled or hammered into
thin sheets
Hardness important property of the metals it
embraces many different properties such as
resistances to wear, scratching, deformation, and
machinability etc.,

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Enhance the properties
Heat Treatment
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Interchangeability
The term interchangeability is normally
employed for mass production of identical items
within the prescribed limits of sizes.
Certain variations are recognized and allowed in
the sizes of the mating parts to give the required
fitting.
This facilitates to select a random from a large
number of parts for an assembly and results in a
considerable saving in the cost of production

@mm 33
Standardization
Minimize variety
Standard components and parts can be obtained
readily and economically from the market
Makes the repair and maintenance of machine
simple
Reduce the time and effort to design and
manufacture new machines
Mass production also becomes possible due to
standardization

@mm 34
Preferred Numbers
Preferred numbers are nothing bet a series of
numbers in a geometric progression
Used for standardization
Reduce unnecessary variations in sizes of an
articles
Used for fixing the speed, power capacities,
structures
By experience that discrete increment of
particular measure, if maintained in GP gives a
logical, uniform and proportionate characteristic
variation pattern.


@mm 35
@mm 36
_____
510 = 1.6 R5
___
1010 = 1.25 R10
___
2010 = 1.12 R20
___
4010 = 1.06 R40
Important properties of preferred numbers
Numbers Close to each other at the lower end
The magnitudes of number increase they are more
widely dpaced
Simple and easily remembered
They are unlimited towards the lower and well as
higher numbers
They include all the decimal multiples and sub
multiples of any terms
@mm 37
Standardizing organisations
India ISI Indian standards institution
Great British BSI British Standards institution
Europe ISA international Federation of National
standardizing Associations
ABC conference- America, Britain and Canada for
cooperative discussions in the field of
standardizing
National Physical Laboratories NPL certification
marks for quality instruments
@mm 38
Failure
Failure
Failure- Excessive deformation
Failure- Excessive deformation
Stress-strain dia.
Failure - Fracture
Failure - Fracture
Failure - Wear
Failure- Deterioration