EE-2027 SaS, L2 1/25

Lecture 2: Signals Concepts & Properties

(1) Systems, signals, mathematical models.
Continuous-time and discrete-time signals.
Energy and power signals. Linear systems.
Examples for use throughout the course, introduction
to Matlab and Simulink tools

Specific objectives for this lecture include
General properties of signals
Energy and power for continuous & discrete-time
signals
Signal transformations
Specific signal types
Representing signals in Matlab and Simulink
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Lecture 2: Resources
SaS, O&W, Sections 1.1-1.4
SaS, H&vV, Sections 1.4-1.9

Mastering Matlab 6
Mastering Simulink 4

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Reminder: Continuous & Discrete Signals
x(t)
t
x[n]
n
Continuous-Time Signals
Most signals in the real world are
continuous time, as the scale is
infinitesimally fine.
E.g. voltage, velocity,
Denote by x(t), where the time
interval may be bounded (finite) or
infinite
Discrete-Time Signals
Some real world and many digital
signals are discrete time, as they
are sampled
E.g. pixels, daily stock price (anything
that a digital computer processes)
Denote by x[n], where n is an integer
value that varies discretely
Sampled continuous signal
x[n] =x(nk)
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Electrical Signal Energy & Power
It is often useful to characterise signals by measures such
as energy and power
For example, the instantaneous power of a resistor is:


and the total energy expanded over the interval [t
1
, t
2
] is:


and the average energy is:


How are these concepts defined for any continuous or
discrete time signal?
) (
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
t v
R
t i t v t p = =
} }
=
2
1
2
1
) (
1
) (
2
t
t
t
t
dt t v
R
dt t p
} }

=

2
1
2
1
) (
1 1
) (
1
2
1 2 1 2
t
t
t
t
dt t v
R t t
dt t p
t t
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Generic Signal Energy and Power
Total energy of a continuous signal x(t) over [t
1
, t
2
] is:


where |.| denote the magnitude of the (complex) number.
Similarly for a discrete time signal x[n] over [n
1
, n
2
]:


By dividing the quantities by (t
2
-t
1
) and (n
2
-n
1
+1),
respectively, gives the average power, P

Note that these are similar to the electrical analogies
(voltage), but they are different, both value and dimension.
}
=
2
1
2
) (
t
t
dt t x E

=
=
2
1
2
] [
n
n n
n x E
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Energy and Power over Infinite Time
For many signals, were interested in examining the power and energy
over an infinite time interval (-, ). These quantities are therefore
defined by:


If the sums or integrals do not converge, the energy of such a signal is
infinite



Two important (sub)classes of signals
1. Finite total energy (and therefore zero average power)
2. Finite average power (and therefore infinite total energy)
Signal analysis over infinite time, all depends on the tails (limiting
behaviour)
} }



= = dt t x dt t x E
T
T
T
2 2
) ( ) ( lim


= =

= =
n
N
N n
N
n x n x E
2 2
] [ ] [ lim
}

=
T
T
T
dt t x
T
P
2
) (
2
1
lim

=

+
=
N
N n
N
n x
N
P
2
] [
1 2
1
lim
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Time Shift Signal Transformations
A central concept in signal analysis is the transformation of one
signal into another signal. Of particular interest are simple
transformations that involve a transformation of the time axis only.
A linear time shift signal transformation is given by:

where b represents a signal offset from 0, and the a parameter
represents a signal stretching if |a|>1, compression if 0<|a|<1 and
a reflection if a<0.

) ( ) ( b at x t y + =
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An important class of signals is the class of periodic
signals. A periodic signal is a continuous time signal
x(t), that has the property

where T>0, for all t.

Examples:
cos(t+2t) = cos(t)
sin(t+2t) = sin(t)
Are both periodic with period 2t

NB for a signal to be periodic, the relationship must hold
for all t.
Periodic Signals
) ( ) ( T t x t x + =
2t
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An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it
can be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:

Examples:
x(t) = cos(t)
x(t) = c
An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed
signal, i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal

Examples:
x(t) = sin(t)
x(t) = t
This is important because any signal can be expressed as
the sum of an odd signal and an even signal.
Odd and Even Signals
) ( ) ( t x t x =
) ( ) ( t x t x =
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Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world
signals and also from a basis (a building block) for other
signals.
A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:

where C and a are, in general, complex numbers. Lets investigate
some special cases of this signal
Real exponential signals
at
Ce t x = ) (
0
0
>
>
C
a
0
0
>
<
C
a
Exponential growth
Exponential decay
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Periodic Complex Exponential &
Sinusoidal Signals
Consider when a is purely imaginary:

By Eulers relationship, this can be expressed
as:

This is a periodic signals because:


when T=2t/e
0
A closely related signal is the sinusoidal
signal:

We can always use:
t j
Ce t x
0
) (
e
=
t j t e
t j
0 0
sin cos
0
e e
e
+ =
t j
T t j
e t j t
T t j T t e
0
0
0 0
0 0
) (
sin cos
) ( sin ) ( cos
e
e
e e
e e
= + =
+ + + =
+
( ) | e + = t t x
0
cos ) (
0 0
2 f t e =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
) (
0
) (
0
0
0
sin
cos
| e
| e
| e
| e
+
+
= +
9 = +
t j
t j
e A t A
e A t A
T
0
= 2t/e
0
= t
cos(1)
T
0
is the fundamental
time period
e
0
is the fundamental
frequency
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Exponential & Sinusoidal Signal Properties
Periodic signals, in particular complex periodic
and sinusoidal signals, have infinite total
energy but finite average power.
Consider energy over one period:



Therefore:

Average power:

Useful to consider harmonic signals

Terminology is consistent with its use in music,
where each frequency is an integer multiple of
a fundamental frequency
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1 T dt
dt e E
T
T
t j
period
= =
=
}
}
e
1
1
0
= =
period period
E
T
P
=

E
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General Complex Exponential Signals
So far, considered the real and periodic complex exponential
Now consider when C can be complex. Let us express C is polar form
and a in rectangular form:


So

Using Eulers relation

These are damped sinusoids
0
e
|
j r a
e C C
j
+ =
=
t j rt t j r j at
e e C e e C Ce
) ( ) (
0 0
| e e | + +
= =
) ) sin(( ) ) cos((
0 0
) (
0
t e C j t e C e e C Ce
rt rt t j r j at
| e | e
e |
+ + + = =
+
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Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:


Useful as a basis for analyzing other signals

The discrete unit step signal is defined:


Note that the unit impulse is the first
difference (derivative) of the step signal

Similarly, the unit step is the running sum
(integral) of the unit impulse.

=
=
= =
0 1
0 0
] [ ] [
n
n
n n x o

>
<
= =
0 1
0 0
] [ ] [
n
n
n u n x
] 1 [ ] [ ] [ = n u n u n o
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Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The continuous unit impulse signal is
defined:


Note that it is discontinuous at t=0
The arrow is used to denote area, rather
than actual value
Again, useful for an infinite basis

The continuous unit step signal is defined:

=
=
= =
0
0 0
) ( ) (
t
t
t t x o
}

= =
t
d t u t x t t o ) ( ) ( ) (

>
<
= =
0 1
0 0
) ( ) (
t
t
t u t x
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Introduction to Matlab
Simulink is a package that runs inside the Matlab environment.
Matlab (Matrix Laboratory) is a dynamic, interpreted, environment
for matrix/vector analysis
User can build programs (in .m files or at command line) C/Java-
like syntax
Ideal environment for programming and analysing discrete
(indexed) signals and systems
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Basic Matlab Operations
>> % This is a comment, it starts with a %
>> y = 5*3 + 2^2; % simple arithmetic
>> x = [1 2 4 5 6]; % create the vector x
>> x1 = x.^2; % square each element in x
>> E = sum(abs(x).^2); % Calculate signal energy
>> P = E/length(x); % Calculate av signal power
>> x2 = x(1:3); % Select first 3 elements in x
>> z = 1+i; % Create a complex number
>> a = real(z); % Pick off real part
>> b = imag(z); % Pick off imaginary part
>> plot(x); % Plot the vector as a signal
>> t = 0:0.1:100; % Generate sampled time
>> x3=exp(-t).*cos(t); % Generate a discrete signal
>> plot(t, x3, x); % Plot points
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Other Matlab Programming Structures
Loops

for i=1:100
sum = sum+i;
end
Goes round the for loop 100
times, starting at i=1 and
finishing at i=100

i=1;
while i<=100
sum = sum+i;
i = i+1;
end
Similar, but uses a while loop
instead of a for loop
Decisions

if i==5
a = i*2;
else
a = i*4;
end
Executes whichever branch is
appropriate depending on test

switch i
case 5
a = i*2;
otherwise
a = i*4;
end
Similar, but uses a switch
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Matlab Help!
These slides have provided a rapid introduction to Matlab
Mastering Matlab 6, Prentice Hall,
Introduction to Matlab (on-line)

Lots of help available
Type help in the command window or help operator. This
displays the help associated with the specified operator/function
Type lookfor topic to search for Matlab commands that are
related to the specified topic
Type helpdesk in the command window or select help on the pull
down menu. This allows you to access several, well-written
programming tutorials.
comp.soft-sys.matlab newsgroup

Learning to program (Matlab) is a bums on seats activity. There is no
substitute for practice, making mistakes, understanding concepts
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Using the Matlab Debugger
Because Matlab is an interpreted language, there is no compile type
syntax checking and the likelihood of a run-time error is higher
Run-time debugging can help
Use the debug and breakpoints pull-down menus to determine where to
stop program and inspect variables
Step over lines/step into functions to evaluate what happens
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Introduction to Simulink
Simulink is a graphical, drag and drop environment for
building simple and complex signal and system
dynamic simulations.
It allows users to concentrate on the structure of the
problem, rather than having to worry (too much)
about a programming language.
The parameters of each signal and system block is
configured by the user (right click on block)
Signals and systems are simulated over a particular
time.
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Signals in Simulink
Two main libraries for manipulating signals in
Simulink:
Sources: generate a signal
Sink: display, read or store a signal
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Example: Generate and View a Signal
Copy sine wave source and
scope sink onto a new
Simulink work space and
connect.

Set sine wave parameters modify
to 2 rad/sec

Run the simulation:
Simulation - Start

Open the scope and leave open
while you change parameters
(sin or simulation parameters)
and re-run
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Lecture 2: Summary
This lecture has looked at signals:
Power and energy
Signal transformations
Time shift
Periodic
Even and odd signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals
Unit impulse and step functions

Matlab and Simulink are complementary environments
for producing and analysing continuous and discrete
signals.
This will require some effort to learn the programming
syntax and style!
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Lecture 2: Exercises
SaS OW:
Q1.3
Q1.7-1.14

Matlab/Simulink
Try out basic Matlab commands on slide 17
Try creating the sin/scope Simulink simulation on slide
23 and modify the parameters of the sine wave and re-
run the simulation
Learning how to use the help facilities in Matlab is
important - do it!