1

Chemistry: Atoms First

Julia Burdge & Jason Overby
Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 1
Chemistry:
The Science of Change
Kent L. McCorkle
Cosumnes River College
Sacramento, CA
Chemistry: The Science of Change
1
1.1 The Study of Chemistry
Chemistry You May Already Know
The Scientific Method
1.2 Classification of Matter
States of Matter Triple Point
Mixtures
1.3 The Properties of Matter
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Extensive and Intensive Properties
1.4 Scientific Measurement
SI Base Units Animation
Mass
Temperature Critical Thinking
Derived Units: Volume and Density
1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement
Significant Figures Handout
Calculations with Measured Numbers
Accuracy and Precision
1.6 Using Units and Solving Problems
Conversion Factors
Dimensional Analysis
Tracking Units

Gasoline Project
Sample Spreadsheet
The Study of Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter undergoes.

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
1.1
The Study of Chemistry
Scientists follow a set of guidelines known as the scientific method:

gather data via observations and experiments
identify patterns or trends in the collected data
summarize their findings with a law
formulate a hypothesis
with time a hypothesis may evolve into a theory

Classification of Matter
Chemists classify matter as either a substance or a mixture of substances.

A substance is a form of matter that has definite composition and distinct properties.
Examples: salt (sodium chloride), iron, water, mercury, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen

Substances differ from one another in composition and may be identified by
appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.
1.2
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances.

A homogeneous mixture is uniform throughout.
Also called a solution.
Examples: seawater, apple juice

A heterogeneous mixture is not uniform throughout.
Examples: trail mix, chicken noodle soup
Classification of Matter
All substances can, in principle,
exist as a solid, liquid or gas.

We can convert a substance from
one state to another without
changing the identity of the
substance.
Classification of Matter
Solid particles are held
closely together in an
ordered fashion.
Liquid particles are close
together but are not held
rigidly in position.
Gas particles have
significant separation
from each other and
move freely.
Solids do not conform
to the shape of their
container.
Liquids do conform to
the shape of their
container.
Gases assume both the
shape and volume of
their container.
Classification of Matter
A mixture can be separated by physical means into its components
without changing the identities of the components.
The Properties of Matter
There are two general types of properties of matter:

1) Quantitative properties are measured and expressed with a
number.

2) Qualitative properties do not require measurement and are
usually based on observation.
1.3
The Properties of Matter
A physical property is one that can be observed and measured
without changing the identity of the substance.
Examples: color, melting point, boiling point
A physical change is one in which the state of matter changes, but
the identity of the matter does not change.
Examples: changes of state (melting, freezing, condensation)
The Properties of Matter
A chemical property is one a substance exhibits as it interacts with
another substance.
Examples: flammability, corrosiveness


A chemical change is one that results in a change of composition;
the original substances no longer exist.

Examples: digestion, combustion, oxidation
The Properties of Matter
An extensive property depends on the amount of matter.
Examples: mass, volume


An intensive property does not depend on the amount of matter.
Examples: temperature, density
Scientific Measurement
1.4
Properties that can be measured
are called quantitative
properties.

A measured quantity must
always include a unit.

The English system has units
such as the foot, gallon, pound,
etc.

The metric system includes
units such as the meter, liter,
kilogram, etc.
SI Base Units
The revised metric system is called the I nternational System of
Units (abbreviated SI Units) and was designed for universal use by
scientists.

There are seven SI base units
SI Base Units
The magnitude of a unit may be tailored to a particular application
using prefixes.
Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object or sample.

Because gravity varies from location to location, the weight of an
object varies depending on where it is measured. But mass doesnt
change.

The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), but in chemistry the
smaller gram (g) is often used.
1 kg = 1000 g = 110
3
g

Atomic mass unit (amu) is used to express the masses of atoms and
other similar sized objects.
1 amu = 1.660537810
-24
g
Temperature
There are two temperature scales used in chemistry:

The Celsius scale (C)
Freezing point (pure water): 0C
Boiling point (pure water): 100C

The Kelvin scale (K)
The absolute scale
Lowest possible temperature: 0 K (absolute zero)
K = C + 273.15
Normal human body temperature can range over the course of a day from about
36C in the early morning to about 37C in the afternoon. Express these two
temperatures and the range that they span using the Kelvin scale.
Worked Example 1.1
Strategy Use K = C + 273.15 to convert temperatures from Celsius to Kelvin.
Solution 36C + 273 = 309 K
37C + 273 = 310 K

What range do they span?
310 K - 309 K = 1 K
Depending on the precision
required, the conversion from
C to K is often simply done by
adding 273, rather than 273.15.
Think About It Remember that converting a temperature from C to K is
different from converting a range or difference in temperature from C to K.
The Fahrenheit scale is common in the United States.
Freezing point (pure water): 32C
Boiling point (pure water): 212C

There are 180 degrees between freezing and boiling in Fahrenheit
(212F-32F) but only 100 degrees in Celsius (100C-0C).
The size of a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is only of a
degree on the Celsius scale.
Temperature
Temp in F = ( temp in C ) + 32F
5
9
5
9
A body temperature above 39C constitutes a high fever. Convert this temperature
to the Fahrenheit scale.
Worked Example 1.2
Solution Temp in F = ( 39C ) + 32F

Temp in F = 102F
Think About It Knowing that normal body temperature on the Fahrenheit
scale is approximately 98.6F, 102F seems like a reasonable answer.
Temp in F = ( temp in C ) + 32F
5
9
5
9
Strategy We are given a temperature and asked to convert it to degrees
Fahrenheit. We will use the equation below:
Derived Units: Volume and Density
There are many units (such as
volume) that require units not
included in the base SI units.

The derived SI unit for volume is
the meter cubed (m
3
).

A more practical unit for volume is
the liter (L).

1 dm
3
= 1 L

1 cm
3
= 1 mL
Comp: Replace with
new Figure 1.8
d = density
m = mass
V = volume


SI-derived unit: kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m
3
)

Other common units: g/cm
3
(solids)
g/mL (liquids)
g/L (gases)
Derived Units: Volume and Density
The density of a substance is the ratio of mass to volume.
m
d =
V
Ice cubes float in a glass of water because solid water is less dense than liquid
water. (a) Calculate the density of ice given that, at 0C, a cube that is 2.0 cm on
each side has a mass of 7.36 g, and (b) determine the volume occupied by 23 g of
ice at 0C.
Solution (a) A cube has three equal sides so the volume is (2.0 cm)
3
, or 8.0 cm
3

d =

(b) Rearranging d = m/V to solve for volume gives V = m/d

V =
Think About It For a sample with a density less than 1 g/cm
3
, the number
of cubic centimeters should be greater than the number of grams. In this
case, 25 cm
3
> 23 g.
7.36 g
8.0 cm
3

23 g
0.92 g/cm
3

= 0.92 g/cm
3

= 25 cm
3

Worked Example 1.3
Strategy (a) Determine density by dividing mass by volume, and (b) use the
calculated density to determine the volume occupied by the given mass.
Uncertainty in Measurement
There are two types of numbers used in chemistry:

1) Exact numbers:
a) are those that have defined values
1 kg = 1000 g
1 dozen = 12 objects
b) are those determined by counting
28 students in a class

2) Inexact numbers:
a) measured by any method other than counting
length, mass, volume, time, speed, etc.
1.5
Uncertainty in Measurement
An inexact number must be reported so as to indicate its uncertainty.
Significant figures are the
meaningful digits in a reported
number.

The last digit in a measured number
is referred to as the uncertain digit.

When using the top ruler to measure
the memory card, we could estimate
2.5 cm. We are certain about the 2,
but we are not certain about the 5.

The uncertainty is generally
considered to be + 1 in the last digit.
Comp: Replace with
new Fig 1.9
2.5 + 0.1 cm
Uncertainty in Measurement
When using the bottom ruler to
measure the memory card, we might
record 2.45 cm.

Again, we estimate one more digit
than we are certain of.
Comp: Replace with
new Fig 1.9
2.45 + 0.01 cm
Significant Figures
The number of significant figures can be determined using the
following guidelines:

1) Any nonzero digit is significant.

2) Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.


3) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant.
112.1 4 significant figures
305 3 significant figures
0.0023 2 significant figure
50.08 4 significant figures
0.000001 1 significant figure
Significant Figures
The number of significant figures can be determined using the
following guidelines:

4) Zeros to the right of the last nonzero digit are significant if a
decimal is present.


5) Zeros to the right of the last nonzero digit in a number that does
not contain a decimal point may or may not be significant.
1.200 4 significant figures
100 1, 2, or 3 ambiguous
Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements: (a)
443 cm, (b) 15.03 g, (c) 0.0356 kg, (d) 3.00010
-7
L, (e) 50 mL, (f) 0.9550 m.
Worked Example 1.4
Solution (a) 443 cm (b)
15.03 g


(c) 0.0356 kg (d)
3.000 x 10
-7
L


(e) 50 mL (f)
0.9550 m
Strategy Zeros are significant between nonzero digits or after a nonzero digit
with a decimal. Zeros may or may not be significant if they appear to the right of
a nonzero digit without a decimal.
3 S.F. 4 S.F.
3 S.F. 4 S.F.
1 or 2, ambiguous
4 S.F.
Think About It Be sure that you have identified zeros correctly as either
significant or not significant. They are significant in (b) and (d); they are not
significant in (c); it is not possible to tell in (e); and the number in (f)
contains one zero that is significant, and one that is not.
In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to
the right of the decimal point than any of the original numbers.


102.50
+ 0.231
102.731


143.29
- 20.1
123.19

round to two digits after the decimal point, 102.73
round to one digit after the decimal point, 123.2
two digits after the decimal point
three digits after the decimal point
two digits after the decimal point
one digit after the decimal point
Calculations with Measured Numbers
In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in
the final product or quotient is determined by the original number
that has the smallest number of significant figures.

1.48.011 = 11.2154



11.57/305.88 = 0.0378252
2 S.F.
fewest significant figures is 2, so
round to 11
4 S.F.
fewest significant figures is 4, so
round to 0.03783
4 S.F. 5 S.F.
Calculations with Measured Numbers
Exact numbers can be considered to have an infinite number of
significant figures and do not limit the number of significant figures
in a result.

Example: Three pennies each have a mass of 2.5 g. What is the
total mass?
32.5 = 7.5 g
Calculations with Measured Numbers
Exact
(counting number)
Inexact
(measurement)
In calculations with multiple steps, round at the end of the
calculation to reduce any rounding errors.
Do not round after each step.

Compare the following:
Calculations with Measured Numbers
1) 3.668.45 = 30.9
2) 30.92.11 = 65.2
1) 3.668.45 = 30.93
2) 30.932.11 = 65.3
Rounding after each step Rounding at end
In general, keep at least one extra digit until the end of a multistep
calculation.
Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the result to the proper
number of significant figures: (a) 317.5 mL + 0.675 mL, (b) 47.80 L 2.075 L,
(c) 13.5 g 45.18 L, (d) 6.25 cm x 1.175 cm, (e) 5.46x10
2
g 4.991x10
3
g
Worked Example 1.5
Solution (a) 317.5 mL
+ 0.675 mL
318.175 mL

(b) 47.80 L
- 2.075 L
45.725 L

Strategy Apply the rules for significant figures in calculations, and round each
answer to the appropriate number of digits.
round to 318.2 mL
round to 45.73 L
Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the result to the proper
number of significant figures: (a) 317.5 mL + 0.675 mL, (b) 47.80 L 2.075 L,
(c) 13.5 g 45.18 L, (d) 6.25 cm x 1.175 cm, (e) 5.46x10
2
g 4.991x10
3
g
Worked Example 1.5 (cont.)
Solution
(c) 13.5 g
45.18 L


(d) 6.25 cm1.175 cm
Strategy Apply the rules for significant figures in calculations, and round each
answer to the appropriate number of digits.
round to 0.299 g/L = 0.298804781 g/L
3 S.F.
4 S.F.
round to 7.34 cm
2
= 7.34375 cm
2
3 S.F. 4 S.F.
Perform the following arithmetic operations and report the result to the proper
number of significant figures: (a) 317.5 mL + 0.675 mL, (b) 47.80 L 2.075 L,
(c) 13.5 g 45.18 L, (d) 6.25 cm x 1.175 cm, (e) 5.46x10
2
g 4.991x10
3
g
Worked Example 1.5 (cont.)
Solution (e) 5.46 x 10
2
g
+ 49.91 x 10
2
g
55.37 x 10
2
g
Strategy Apply the rules for significant figures in calculations, and round each
answer to the appropriate number of digits.
= 5.537 x 10
3
g
Think About It Changing the answer to correct scientific notation doesnt
change the number of significant figures, but in this case it changes the number of
places past the decimal place.
An empty container with a volume of 9.850 x 102 cm
3
is weighed and found to
have a mass of 124.6 g. The container is filled with a gas and reweighed. The
mass of the container and the gas is 126.5 g. Determine the density of the gas to
the appropriate number of significant figures.
Worked Example 1.6
Solution 126.5 g
124.6 g
mass of gas = 1.9 g

density =
Strategy This problem requires two steps: subtraction to determine the mass of
the gas, and division to determine its density. Apply the corresponding rule
regarding significant figures to each step.
one place past the decimal point (two sig figs)
1.9 g
9.850 x 10
2
cm
3
round to 0.0019 g/cm
3
= 0.00193 g/cm
3
Think About It In this case, although each of the three numbers we started
with has four significant figures, the solution only has two significant figures.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy tells us how close a
measurement is to the true value.

Precision tells us how close a series of
replicate measurements are to one another.
Good accuracy and good precision
Poor accuracy but good precision
Poor accuracy and poor precision
Accuracy and Precision
Three students were asked to find the mass of an aspirin tablet. The
true mass of the tablet is 0.370 g.
Student A: Results are precise but not accurate

Student B: Results are neither precise nor accurate

Student C: Results are both precise and accurate
Using Units and Solving Problems
A conversion factor is a fraction in which the same quantity is
expressed one way in the numerator and another way in the
denominator.

For example, 1 in = 2.54 cm, may be written:
1.6
1 in
2.54 cm
2.54 cm
1 in
or
Dimensional Analysis Tracking Units
The use of conversion factors in problem solving is called
dimensional analysis or the factor-label method.

Example: Convert 12.00 inches to meters.

12.00 in

Which conversion factor will cancel inches and give us centimeters?
1 in
2.54 cm
2.54 cm
1 in
or
= 30.48 cm
The result contains 4 sig
figs because the
conversion, a definition,
is exact.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that dietary sodium
intake be no more than 2400 mg per day.
Worked Example 1.7
Solution
2400 mg
Strategy The necessary conversion factors are derived from the equalities
1 g = 1000 mg and 1 lb = 453.6 g.
1 lb
453.6 g
453.6 g
1 lb
or
1 g
1000 mg
or
1000 mg
1 g
1 g
1000 mg
1 lb
453.6 g
= 0.005291 lb
Think About It Make sure that the magnitude of the result is reasonable and
that the units have canceled properly. If we had mistakenly multiplied by 1000
and 453.6 instead of dividing by them, the result
(2400 mg1000 mg/g453.6 g/lb = 1.08910
9
mg
2
/lb) would be
unreasonably large and the units would not have canceled properly.
An average adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is the volume of blood in cubic
meters?
Worked Example 1.8
Solution
5.2 L
Strategy 1 L = 1000 cm
3
and 1 cm = 1x10
-2
m. When a unit is raised to a
power, the corresponding conversion factor must also be raised to that power in
order for the units to cancel appropriately.
1000 cm
3
1 L
1 x 10
-2
m
1 cm
= 5.2 x 10
-3
m
3
3
Think About It Based on the preceding conversion factors, 1 L = 110
-3
m
3
.
Therefore, 5 L of blood would be equal to 510
-3
m
3
, which is close to the
calculated answer.
Chapter Summary: Key Points
1
The Scientific Method
States of Matter
Substances
Mixtures
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Extensive and Intensive Properties
SI Base Units
Mass
Temperature
Volume and Density
Significant Figures