INTRODUCATION TO SYNTAX

Words, Phrases and Clauses

Doc. Dr Dragana Luki
University of Biha
2012


What is syntax?
Syntax is the study of the structure of
sentences.
Syntax analyzes how words combine to
form sentences.
Sentences are made up of smaller units,
called phrases (which in turn are made
up of words).
Why is syntax important?
We speak in sentences not in words. To understand
the structure of a language it is necessary to study
the structure of sentences.
If we learn to analyze the structure of sentences, we
will also learn to analyze their meaning.
The study of syntax is the study of the function of
words, which is necessary to understand the
structure and the meaning of a language.
The basic functions
Subject: obligatory element; it specifies the entity about
which we will say something (the doer of the action, the
entity described, etc.)
Object: obligatory element, it completes the meaning of
a word or sentence.
Subject or Object Complement: obligatory element
that adds a description of the subject or the object. These
function also receive the names of Attribute and
Predicative.
Modifier: optional element; adds additional information
that specifies a noun
Adverbial: optional element; modifies a verb, adjective
or adverb
The structure of sentences
word word word word word word word word
phrase phrase phrase
phrase
clause
What is a sentence?
A sentence is basically a string of words that
follow the grammatical rules of a language.
A sentence expresses a complete thought
A sentence is made up of phrases. At the
very least a sentence contains a verb phrase
(also known as the predicate) and a subject.
We will use the terms SENTENCE and
CLAUSE indistinctively.
Types of sentences
We can distinguish two types of sentences:
MAIN CLAUSES/independent: they express
complete thoughts and are independent of other
words or sentences.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES/dependent: they
are dependent on other words and help to
complete or modify the meaning of the complete
sentence. They cannot exist independently of the
words they modify or complete.
What is a phrase?
A phrase is a part of a sentence. It does not
express a complete thought.
A phrase is a group of words that function as
a single unit. Usually they can be substituted
by a pronominal form.
All phrases have one word which is the
nucleus, the head. The head of a phrase
determines the kind of phrase we have: Noun
Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase,
Prepositional Phrase or Verb Phrase.
Noun phrases
A Noun Phrase (NP) is a phrase that is made up of at
least one noun (or a pronoun). The noun is the head
of the NP.
NPs usually function as:
Subjects: THE MAN spoke loudly.
Objects: I met YOUR FRIEND yesterday.
Ill see you after THE CLASS.
Subject Complements: She is A DOCTOR.
Adverbials: Anna got married LAST MONTH.
Adjective phrases
An Adjective Phrase (AP) is a phrase that is
made up of at least one adjective. The
adjective is the head of the NP.
APs usually function as:
Modifiers: I saw a SMALL child.
Subject Complements: She is not HAPPY.
Object Complements: I consider Peter
STUPID.
Adverb phrases
An Adverb Phrase (AdvP) is a phrase that is
made up of at least one adverb. The adverb
is the head of the AdvP.
AdvPs usually function as:
Adverbials:
Andy was VERY late.
Sally works HARD.
Prepositional phrases
A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is a phrase that is made
up of at least one preposition usually followed by a
NP that functions as the object of the preposition.
The preposition is the head of the PP.
PPs usually function as:
Adverbials: Anna got married IN JULY.
Objects: I put the book ON THE TABLE.
I bought a ring FOR MY MOTHER.
Verb phrases
A Verb Phrase (VP) is a phrase that is made
up of at least one verb.
Verb phrases often contain noun phrases,
prepositional phrases or adverb phrases that
function as objects or adverbials of the verb.
The verb is the head of the VP.
VPs function as the head of the clause.
Kinds of Verbs
Verbs can be classified in many different
ways. We will distinguish different types of
verbs according to the following aspects:
according to the meaning and function: lexical,
linking or auxiliary
according to the number of objects it requires:
intransitive, transitive or monotransitive,
ditransitive, complex-transitive
according to the form: finite or non-finite
Meaning and function
Lexical verbs are main verbs that add the primary meaning. A
main clause must have one and only one lexical verb.
I READ a novel.
Linking verbs are verbs that do not add much meaning. They
link subjects and subject complements.
Peter BECAME bored.
Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used to help lexical or
linking verbs by adding grammatical information (aspect, tense,
modality). Auxiliary verbs do not add lexical meaning. Auxiliary
verbs need not be present in a main clause, but sometimes
there are more than one auxiliary verb in a single clause.
Andrew MAY HAVE BEEN studying too hard.
The number of objects
Intransitive verbs do not need any objects to complement
their meaning.
Peter had to RUN.
Transitive verbs need one object to complement their
meaning. The object may be a Noun Phrase or a Prepositional
Phrase. (monotransitive)
I read AN INTERESTING NEWPAPER ARTICLE.
Peter looks after HIS BROTHER.
Ditransitive verbs need two objects to complement their
meaning. The objects may be two Noun Phrases or a Noun
Phrase and a Prepositional Phrase
I told MY SISTER A SECRET.
Pam gave A PRESENT TO MY BROTHER.
The form (I)
All verbs have finite and non-finite forms.
Finite verbs are verbs that are inflected for tense, person and
number. In a complex verb there can only be one finite form
and it is always at the beginning of the complex verb. A main
clause must contain a finite verb.
Sean COMES from Ireland.
Laura SHOULD stay home.
Non-finite verbs are verbs that are not inflected for tense,
person and number. In a complex verb there can be several
non-finite forms. In a main clause the non-finite forms always
follow a finite verb.
John has GONE to London.
Laura should STAY home.
The form (II)
The non-finite forms of verbs are:
The bare infinitive
go, come, speak
The to-infinitive
to go, to come, to speak
The past participle
gone, come, spoken
The ing form
going, coming, speaking
Lexical Verbs
Lexical verbs can be divided into two major
groups:
Dynamic verbs are verbs that indicate
actions, activities, events that have a
beginning, a middle and an end
go, come, speak, eat, give, paint,
Stative verbs are verbs that do not indicate
actions, but states of being. They usually
indicate
Perception: see, taste, smell, hear
Cognition: understand, know, think
Possession: own, have
Mental states: hate, like, need
Dynamic vs. Stative Verbs
Dynamic verbs can appear in the
progressive. Stative verbs cannot.
I am reading a book
*I am needing a favor.
Linking verbs are always stative.
Some verbs may be used, with a
different meaning as dynamic or stative
verbs.
I can see someone right now. (stative)
I am seeing someone right now. (dynamic)

?
questions
Thank you