Reference Models

ISO/OSI Stack & TCP/IP Stack

Basic concept of layering

Network architectures define the standards and techniques for
designing and building communication systems for computers and
other devices.

In the past, vendors developed their own architectures and required
that other vendors conform to this architecture if they wanted to
develop compatible hardware and software.

There are proprietary network architectures such as IBM's SNA
(Systems Network Architecture) and there are open architectures
like the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model defined by the
International Organization for Standardization.
The previous strategy, where the computer network is designed with
the hardware as the main concern and software is afterthought, no
longer works. Network software is now highly structured.
Why Layered architecture?

1. To make the design process easy by breaking unmanageable
tasks into several smaller and manageable tasks (by divide-and-
conquer approach).

2. Modularity and clear interfaces, so as to provide comparability
between the different providers' components.

3. Ensure independence of layers, so that implementation of each
layer can be changed or modified without affecting other layers.

4. Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently of all other
layers.
Basic elements of a layered model
Services: A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another
(higher) layer.

Protocols: Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange
information with a peer entity. These rules concern both the contents
and the order of the messages used.

Interfaces: Between the layers service interfaces are defined. The
messages from one layer to another are sent through those
interfaces.

In an n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on
conversation with the layer n on other machine. The rules and
conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the
layer-n protocol. Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the
communicating parties on how communication is to proceed. Violating
the protocol will make communication more difficult, if not impossible.
Five-layer architecture
The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different
machines are called peers. In other words, it is the peers that
communicate using protocols.

In reality, no data is transferred from layer n on one machine to
layer n of another machine.

Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached.

Below layer-1 is the physical layer through which actual
communication occurs.

The peer process abstraction is crucial to all network design. Using
it, the un-manageable tasks of designing the complete network can
be broken into several smaller, manageable, design problems,
namely design of individual layers.
Interfaces
Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The
interface defines which primitives operations and services the lower
layer offers to the upper layer adjacent to it.

When network designer decides how many layers to include in the
network and what each layer should do, one of the main
considerations is defining clean interfaces between adjacent layers.

Doing so, in turns requires that each layer should perform well-defined
functions.

In addition to minimize the amount of information passed between
layers, clean-cut interface also makes it simpler to replace the
implementation of one layer with a completely different
implementation, because all what is required of new implementation is
that it offers same set of services to its upstairs neighbor as the old
implementation (that is what a layer provides and how to use that
service from it is more important than knowing how exactly it
implements it).

Network Architecture
A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

The specification of architecture must contain enough information to
allow an implementation to write the program or build the hardware
for each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.

Neither the details of implementation nor the specification of
interface is a part of network architecture because these are hidden
away inside machines and not visible from outside.

It is not even necessary that the interface on all machines in a
network be same, provided that each machine can correctly use all
protocols.

A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer,
is called protocol stack.


Relation between Layers at an
Interface
SAP-Service Access Point
IDU-Interface Data Unit
SDU-Service Data Unit
PDU-Protocol Data Unit
ICI-Interface Control Information
INTERFACE
LAYER N+1
LAYER N
ICI SDU
IDU
ICI SDU
SAP
Header
SDU
N-PDU
Description
The function of each layer is to provide services to the layer above it.
The active elements in each layer are often called entities.
An entity can be a software entity (such as a process) or a hardware
entity (such as an intelligent I/O chip).
Entities in the same layer on different machines are called peer
entities.
The entities in layer n implement a service used by layer n+1.
In this case layer n is called a service provider and layer n+1 is
called a service user.
Layer n may use the services of layer n-1 in order to provide its
service.
Services (Classes of service fast, expensive communication and
slow, cheap communication) are available at SAPs (Service Access
Points)

Description contd..
The layer n SAPs are the places where layer n+1 can access the
services offered .

Each SAPs has an address that uniquely identifies it.
Example- Telephone system ,Postal system.

In order for two layers to exchange information there has to to be an
agreed upon set of rules about the interface.

At an interface, the layer n+1 entity passes an IDU to the layer n
entity through the SAP as shown in fig.

The IDU consists of an SDU and some control information.

The SDU is the information passed across the network to the peer
entity and then up to layer n+1.
Description contd..
The control information is needed to help the lower layer do its
job(e.g. the number of bytes in SDU) but is not part of the data itself.

To transfer the SDU, the layer n may have to fragment it into several
pieces,each of which is given a header and sent as separate PDU
such as a packet.

The PDU headers are used by the peer entities to carry out their
peer protocol.

They identify which PDUs contain data and which contain control
information, provide sequence numbers and counts and so on.



Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Services
Service Examples
Reliable message
stream
Sequence of pages
Reliable byte stream Remote Login
Unreliable Connection Digitized Voice & video
Unreliable Datagram Electronic Junk Mail
Acknowledged datagram Registered mail
Request-Reply Database Query
Connection-Oriented
Connectionless
Service Primitives
Primitive Meaning
Request An entity wants the service to
do some work
Indication An entity is to be informed
about an event
Response An entity wants to respond to an
event
Confirm The response to an earlier
request has come back
Four classes of service primitives
These primitive tells the service to perform some action or report on an action taken
by a peer entity.
Intranets, Extranets, and Internets

An intranet is basically a network that is local to a company.
In other words, users from within this company can find all of
their resources without having to go outside of the company.
An intranet can include LANs, private WANs and MANs, and
SANs.

An extranet is an extended intranet, where certain internal
services are made available to known external users or
external business partners at remote locations. The
connections between these external users and the internal
resource are typically secured via a firewall and a VPN.
internet
An internet is used when unknown external users need
to access internal resources in your network. In other
words, your company might have a web site that sells
various products, and you want any external user to be
able to access this service.
There is a difference between the terms internet and
Internet. The lowercase internet refers to any type of
network connection where external users access publicly
available resources. The Internet is the main public
network that most companies and people use when
accessing external resources.Typically, a firewall is used
to secure your internal resources from external users.

ISO/OSI Model
International Standard Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. Established in 1947.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is Open System Interconnection.
Introduced in late 1970s.
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
The layered model that dominated data communications
and networking literature before 1990 was the OSI model.
Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the
ultimate standard for data communications, but this did
not happen.
The TCP/IP protocol suite became the
dominant commercial architecture.
Because it was used and tested
extensively in the Internet.
So, the OSI model was never fully
implemented.
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Seven Layers of the OSI model
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
7-6 interface
6-5 interface
5-4 interface
4-3 interface
3-2 interface
2-1 interface
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
7-6 interface
6-5 interface
5-4 interface
4-3 interface
3-2 interface
2-1 interface
Peer-to-peer protocol
Peer-to-peer protocol
Peer-to-peer protocol
Peer-to-peer protocol
Data Link
Network Network
Physical Physical
Data Link
Physical Communication
A B
Interaction between the layers in OSI model
D3
D2
D4
D5
D6
D7 H7
H6
H5
H4
H3
H2 T2
110 1101111111111100000011000
D3
D2
D4
D5
D6
D7 H7
H6
H5
H4
H3
H2 T2
1101111111111100000011000 110
Transmission medium
Exchange of information using OSI model
E
N
C
A
P
S
U
L
A
T
I
O
N
D
E
C
A
P
S
U
L
A
T
I
O
N
It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to occur.
The physical layer is responsible for movements
of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer

Responsibilities of Physical Layer:

The type of interface used on the networking device (e.g.
NIC)
The type of cable used for connecting devices
The connectors used on each end of the cable (e.g.
terminators, repeaters, hub)
The pin-outs used for each of the connections on the
cable
Representation of bits
Data rate (Transmission rate)
Synchronization of bits
Line configuration
Physical Topology
Transmission mode

Data Link Layer
It makes the physical layer appear error
free to the upper layer (network layer).
It is responsible for moving frames from
one hop (node) to the next.
Data Link Layer
Responsibilities of Data Link Layer:

Framing
Physical addressing
Flow control
Error control
Access control

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery
of individual packets from the source host to
destination host.
If two systems are connected to the same link,
there is usually no need of network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to
different networks links) with connecting devices
between the networks (links), there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source
to destination delivery.
Network Layer
Responsibilities of Network Layer:

Logical Addressing
Routing


IP Address
An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s.
To make the IP address easier to use, the address
is usually written as four decimal numbers
separated by periods.
This way of writing the address is called the dotted
decimal format.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the
delivery of a message from one process
to another.
A process is an application program
running on a host.
Network layer treats each packet
independently, as though ,each packet
belongs to a separate message, whether
or not it does.
Transport Layer
Responsibilities of Network Layer:

Service-point addressing (Port
Addressing)
Segmentation and Re-assembly
Connection Control
Flow Control
Error Control


Session Layer
It is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.
It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the
interaction among communicating systems.


Responsibilities of Session Layer:

Dialog Control
Synchronization( it allows a process to add
check points, to stream of data)
Presentation Layer
It is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.

Responsibilities of Presentation Layer:

Translation
Encryption
Compression
Application Layer
It is responsible for providing services to the user
The application layer enables the user, whether
human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as
electronic mail or mail services(e.g. X.400)
Remote file access and transfer &management
(e.g. FTAM)
Shared database management
Directory Services (e.g. X.500)
Network virtual terminal

TCP/IP
ISO/OSI layers TCP/IP protocols
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport SCTP TCP UDP
Network ICMP IGMP IP RARP ARP
Data Link
LLC
Ethernet
MAC
Token Ring
MAC
Token Bus
MAC
.

Physical
Ethernet
PHY
Token Ring
PHY
Token Bus
PHY
.
Telnet
FTP
SMTP
DHCP
SNMP
DNS
Addressing
Physical (link) Addresses
Logical (IP) Addresses
Port (Service-point ) Addresses
Specific Addresses

Physical (link) Addresses
Source address destination address can be
Unicast
Multticast




Broadcast (all 1s means forty-eight 1s)
Source address is always a unicast address- the
frames comes from only one station.
Byte1 Byte2 Byte6
Unicast : 0 ; Multicast :1
Port Addresses
16-bit address between 0 & 65,535.
The destination port number is needed for
delivery ,the source port number is
needed for the reply.
The client program define itself with a port
number, chosen randomly by the transport
layer software running on the client host.
This is the ephemeral port number.
IANA Ranges
Well-known ports: 0-1023 are assigned and
controlled by IANA known as Well-known ports.
Registered ports: 1024-49,151 are not assigned
or controlled by IANA. They can only be
registered with IANA to prevent duplication.
Dynamic ports: 49,152 - 65,535 are neither
controlled nor registered. They can be used by
any process. These are ephemeral ports.

Socket Address
Process-to-process delivery needs two
identifiers
IP address
Port address
At each end to make a connection.
200.23.56.2
200.23.56.2
69
69
IP Port address
SOCKET ADDRESS