SQL Plus Introduction

Copyright Wipro Technologies

Training Manual
2
Communicating with a RDBMS Using SQL
Database
SQL> SELECT loc
2 FROM dept;
SQL statement
is entered
Message is sent
to the Client
Query is sent to
Database
Location
-------------
Dallas
New York
Santa Clara
Dept
3
Types Of SQL Statements
SELECT Data Retrieval
INSERT
DELETE
UPDATE
Data Manipulation Language
(DML)
CREATE
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE
Data Definition Language
(DDL)
COMMIT
ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT
Transaction Control Language
(TCL)
GRANT
REVOKE
Data Control Language
(DCL)
4
Objectives
Capabilities of SQL SELECT statements

Execute a basic SELECT statement

Differentiate between SQL statements and SQL*Plus
commands
5
Basic SELECT Statement
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias],...}
FROM table;
SELECT identifies what columns

FROM identifies which table
6
Guidelines Writing SQL Statements
SQL statements are not case sensitive.
SQL statements can be on one or More lines.
Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split across lines.
Clauses are usually placed on
separate lines.
Tabs and indents are used to enhance readability.
7







SQL> SELECT *
2 FROM dept;
Selecting All Columns
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
--------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
8







Selecting Specific Columns
DEPTNO LOC
--------- -------------
10 NEW YORK
20 DALLAS
30 CHICAGO
40 BOSTON
SQL> SELECT deptno, loc
2 FROM dept;
9
Arithmetic Expressions
Basic Arithmetic operators used in SQLs
Operator
+
-
*
/
Description
Add
Subtract
Multiply
Divide
10

Using Arithmetic Operators










SQL> SELECT ename, sal, sal+300
2 FROM emp;
ENAME SAL SAL+300
---------- --------- ---------
KING 5000 5300
BLAKE 2850 3150
CLARK 2450 2750
JONES 2975 3275
MARTIN 1250 1550
ALLEN 1600 1900
...
14 rows selected.
11
Operator Precedence
Multiplication and division take priority over addition
and subtraction.
Operators of the same priority are evaluated from left to
right.
Override operator precedence using parentheses


*
/ +
_
12











Operator Precedence
SQL> SELECT ename, sal, 12*sal+100
2 FROM emp;
ENAME SAL 12*SAL+100
---------- --------- ----------
KING 5000 60100
BLAKE 2850 34300
CLARK 2450 29500
JONES 2975 35800
MARTIN 1250 15100
ALLEN 1600 19300
...
14 rows selected.
13










Using Parentheses
SQL> SELECT ename, sal, 12*(sal+100)
2 FROM emp;
ENAME SAL 12*(SAL+100)
---------- --------- -----------
KING 5000 61200
BLAKE 2850 35400
CLARK 2450 30600
JONES 2975 36900
MARTIN 1250 16200
...
14 rows selected.
14








Defining a Null Value
A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned, unknown, or
inapplicable.

A null is not the same as zero or a blank space.
SQL> SELECT ename, job, comm
2 FROM emp;
ENAME JOB COMM
---------- --------- ---------
KING PRESIDENT
BLAKE MANAGER
...
TURNER SALESMAN 0
...
14 rows selected.
15






Using the DISTINCT Clause
Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT
keyword
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT deptno
2 FROM emp;
DEPTNO
---------
10
20
30

16
SQL and SQL*Plus Commands

SQL

A language
ANSI standard
Keyword cannot be
abbreviated
Statements manipulate
data and table
definitions in the
database
SQL statements are
stored in buffer

SQL*Plus

An environment
Oracle proprietary
Keywords can be
abbreviated
Commands do not
allow manipulation of
values in the database
SQL*PLUS statements
are not stored in
Buffer

17
SQL*Plus Commands
A[PPEND] text
C[HANGE] / old / new
C[HANGE] / text /
CL[EAR] BUFF[ER]
DEL
DEL n
DEL m n
18
SQL*Plus Commands
I[NPUT]
I[NPUT] text
L[IST]
L[IST] n
L[IST] m n
R[UN]
19
SQL*Plus File Commands
SAVE filename
GET filename
START filename
@ filename
EDIT filename
SPOOL filename
20
Summary
Use SQL*Plus as an environment to:
Execute SQL statements
Edit SQL statements
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*,column[alias],...}
FROM table;
21
Objectives

Limiting the rows retrieved
Sorting the rows retrieved
22


Using the WHERE Clause
Restrict the rows returned by using the WHERE clause.
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias], ...}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];
The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause.
23








Using the WHERE Clause
SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE job='CLERK';
ENAME JOB DEPTNO
---------- --------- ---------
JAMES CLERK 30
SMITH CLERK 20
ADAMS CLERK 20
MILLER CLERK 10
24
Working with Character Strings and Dates
Character strings and date values are enclosed in
single quotation marks
Character values are case-sensitive and date values are
format-sensitive
Default date format is 'DD-MON-YY'
SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE ename = 'JAMES';
25
Using the Comparison Operators
Operator
=
>
>=
<
<=
<>
Meaning
Equal to
Greater than
Greater than or equal to
Less than
Less than or equal to
Not equal to
26




Using the Comparison Operators
SQL> SELECT ename, sal, comm
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal<=comm;
ENAME SAL COMM
---------- --------- ---------
MARTIN 1250 1400
27
Other Comparison Operators
Operator
BETWEEN
...AND...
IN(list)
LIKE
IS NULL
Meaning
Between two values (inclusive)

Match any of a list of values
Match a character pattern
Is a null value
28




Using the BETWEEN Operator
ENAME SAL
---------- ---------
MARTIN 1250
TURNER 1500
WARD 1250
ADAMS 1100
MILLER 1300

SQL> SELECT ename, sal
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal BETWEEN 1000 AND 1500;
Lower
limit
Higher
limit
Use the BETWEEN operator to display rows based on a
range of values.
29




Using the IN Operator
Use the IN operator to test for values in a list.
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal, mgr
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE mgr IN (7902, 7566, 7788);
EMPNO ENAME SAL MGR
--------- ---------- --------- ---------
7902 FORD 3000 7566
7369 SMITH 800 7902
7788 SCOTT 3000 7566
7876 ADAMS 1100 7788
30


Using the LIKE Operator
Use the LIKE operator to perform wildcard
searches of valid search string values.
% denotes zero or many characters
_ denotes one character
SQL> SELECT ename
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE ename LIKE 'S%';
31




Using the LIKE Operator
You can use the ESCAPE identifier to search for
"%" or "_".
SQL> SELECT ename
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE ename LIKE '_A%';
ENAME
----------
JAMES
WARD
32




Using the IS NULL Operator
Use the IS NULL operator to test for null values
SQL> SELECT ename, mgr
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE mgr IS NULL;
ENAME MGR
---------- ---------
KING
33
Logical Operators
Operator
AND

OR

NOT
Meaning
Returns TRUE if both component
conditions are TRUE
Returns TRUE if either component
condition is TRUE
Returns TRUE if the following
condition is FALSE
34




Using the AND Operator
AND requires both conditions to be TRUE.
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal>=1100
4 AND job='CLERK';
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL
--------- ---------- --------- ---------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300
35




Using the OR Operator
OR requires either condition to be TRUE.
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal>=1100
4 OR job='CLERK';
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL
--------- ---------- --------- ---------

7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
...
14 rows selected.
36




Using the NOT Operator
SQL> SELECT ename, job
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE job NOT IN ('CLERK','MANAGER','ANALYST');
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
KING PRESIDENT
MARTIN SALESMAN
ALLEN SALESMAN
TURNER SALESMAN
WARD SALESMAN
37
Rules of Precedence
Override rules of precedence by using parentheses.
Order Evaluated Operator
1 All comparison
operators
2 NOT
3 AND
4 OR
38






Using the ORDER BY Clause
Sort rows with the ORDER BY clause
ASC: ascending order, default
DESC: descending order

SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno, hiredate
2 FROM emp
3 ORDER BY hiredate;

ENAME JOB DEPTNO HIREDATE
---------- --------- --------- ---------
SMITH CLERK 20 17-DEC-80
ALLEN SALESMAN 30 20-FEB-81
...
14 rows selected.
39




Sorting in Descending Order
SQL> SELECT ename, job, deptno, hiredate
2 FROM emp
3 ORDER BY hiredate DESC;
ENAME JOB DEPTNO HIREDATE
---------- --------- --------- ---------
ADAMS CLERK 20 12-JAN-83
SCOTT ANALYST 20 09-DEC-82
MILLER CLERK 10 23-JAN-82
JAMES CLERK 30 03-DEC-81
FORD ANALYST 20 03-DEC-81
KING PRESIDENT 10 17-NOV-81
MARTIN SALESMAN 30 28-SEP-81
...
14 rows selected.
40




Sorting the rows by Column Alias
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal*12 annsal
2 FROM emp
3 ORDER BY annsal;
EMPNO ENAME ANNSAL
--------- ---------- ---------
7369 SMITH 9600
7900 JAMES 11400
7876 ADAMS 13200
7654 MARTIN 15000
7521 WARD 15000
7934 MILLER 15600
7844 TURNER 18000
...
14 rows selected.
41




Sorting by Multiple Columns
The order of ORDER BY list is the order of sort.
SQL> SELECT ename, deptno, sal
2 FROM emp
3 ORDER BY deptno, sal DESC;
ENAME DEPTNO SAL
---------- --------- ---------
KING 10 5000
CLARK 10 2450
MILLER 10 1300
FORD 20 3000
...
14 rows selected.
42


Summary
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias], ...}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)]
[ORDER BY {column, expr, alias} [ASC|DESC]];
Review Questions
44
Objectives
Describe various types of functions available in SQL
Use character, number, and date functions in SELECT
statements
Describe the use of conversion functions
45
Types of SQL Functions
Functions
Single-row
functions
Multiple-row
functions
46
Single-Row Functions
Act on each row returned
Return one result per row
Can be nested
function_name (column|expression, [arg1, arg2,...])
47
Single-Row Functions
Conversion
Character
Number
Date
General
Single-row
functions
48
Using Character Functions
Character
functions
LOWER
UPPER
INITCAP
CONCAT
SUBSTR
LENGTH
INSTR
LPAD
Case conversion
functions
Character manipulation
functions
49
Function Result
Using Case Conversion Functions
Convert case for character strings
LOWER('SQL Course')
UPPER('SQL Course')
INITCAP('SQLCourse')
sql course
SQL COURSE
Sql Course
50
Using Case Conversion Functions
Display the employee number, name, and department
number for employee Blake.
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, deptno
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE ename = 'blake';
no rows selected


EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO
--------- ---------- ---------
7698 BLAKE 30
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, deptno
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE LOWER(ename) = 'blake';
51
CONCAT('Good', 'String')
SUBSTR('String',1,3)
LENGTH('String')
INSTR('String', 'r')
LPAD(sal,10,'*')
GoodString
Str
6
3
******5000
Function Result
Character Manipulation Functions
Manipulate character strings
52





Using the Character Manipulation Functions
SQL> SELECT ename, CONCAT (ename, job), LENGTH(ename),
2 INSTR(ename, 'A')
3 FROM emp
4 WHERE
SUBSTR(job,1,5) = 'SALES';
ENAME CONCAT(ENAME,JOB) LENGTH(ENAME) INSTR(ENAME,'A')
---------- ------------------- ------------- ----------------
MARTIN MARTINSALESMAN 6 2
ALLEN ALLENSALESMAN 5 1
TURNER TURNERSALESMAN 6 0
WARD WARDSALESMAN 4 2
53
Using the Number Functions
ROUND: Rounds value to specified
decimal
ROUND(45.926, 2) 45.93
TRUNC: Truncates value to specified
decimal
TRUNC(45.926, 2) 45.92
MOD: Returns remainder of division
MOD(1600, 300) 100
54
Working with Dates
Oracle stores dates in an internal numeric format:
Century, year, month, day, hours, minutes, seconds.
The default date format is DD-MON-YY.
SYSDATE is a function returning date and time.
DUAL is a dummy table used to view SYSDATE.
55
Arithmetic with Dates
Add or subtract a number to or from a date for a
resultant date value.
Subtract two dates to find the number of days between
those dates.
Add hours to a date by dividing the number of hours by
24.
56





Using Arithmetic Operators With Dates
SQL> SELECT ename, (SYSDATE-hiredate)/7 WEEKS
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE deptno = 10;
ENAME WEEKS
---------- ---------
KING 830.93709
CLARK 853.93709
MILLER 821.36566
57
Working with Date Functions
Number of months
between two dates
MONTHS_BETWEEN
ADD_MONTHS
NEXT_DAY
LAST_DAY
ROUND
TRUNC
Add calendar months to
date
Next day of the date
specified
Last day of the month
Round date
Truncate date
FUNCTION DESCRIPTION
58
Using Date Functions
ROUND('25-JUL-95','MONTH') 01-AUG-95
ROUND('25-JUL-95','YEAR') 01-JAN-96
TRUNC('25-JUL-95','MONTH') 01-JUL-95
TRUNC('25-JUL-95','YEAR') 01-JAN-95
59
Conversion Functions
Implicit datatype
conversion
Explicit datatype
conversion
Datatype
conversion
60
Implicit Datatype Conversion
For assignments, Oracle can automatically convert
VARCHAR2 or CHAR
From To
VARCHAR2 or CHAR
NUMBER
DATE
NUMBER
DATE
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
61
Explicit Datatype Conversion
NUMBER CHARACTER
TO_CHAR
TO_NUMBER
DATE
TO_CHAR
TO_DATE
62
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates
The format model:
Must be enclosed in single quotation marks and is case sensitive
Can include any valid date format element
Has an fm element to remove padded blanks or suppress leading
zeros
Is separated from the date value by a comma
TO_CHAR(date, 'fmt')
63
YYYY
Date Format Model
YEAR
MM
MONTH
DY
DAY
Full year in numbers
Year spelled out
2-digit value for month
3-letter abbreviation of the day
of the week
Full name of the day
Full name of the month
64
Date Format Model Elements
Time elements format the time portion of the date.

HH24:MI:SS AM 15:45:32 PM
DD "of" MONTH 12 of OCTOBER
ddspth fourteenth
Add character strings by enclosing them in double quotation marks.
Number suffixes spell out numbers.
65
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers
Use these formats with the TO_CHAR function to display a
number value as a character.
TO_CHAR(number, 'fmt')
9
0
$
L
.
,
Represents a number
Forces a zero to be displayed
Places a floating dollar sign
Uses the floating local currency symbol
Prints a decimal point
Prints a thousand indicator
66
TO_NUMBER and TO_DATE Functions
Convert a character string to a number format using the
TO_NUMBER function
TO_NUMBER(char)
Convert a character string to a date format using the
TO_DATE function
TO_DATE(char[, 'fmt'])
67
Windowing Technique using the RR Date Format
Current Year
1995
1995
2001
2001
Specified Date
27-OCT-95
27-OCT-17
27-OCT-17
27-OCT-95
RR Format
1995
2017
2017
1995
YY Format
1995
1917
2017
2095
If two digits
of the
current
year are
0-49
0-49 50-99
50-99
The return date is in
the current century.
The return date is in
the century after
the current one.
The return date is in
the century before
the current one.
The return date is in
the current century.
If the specified two-digit year is
68












SQL> SELECT ename, sal, comm, (sal*12)+NVL(comm,0)
2 FROM emp;
Using the NVL Function
ENAME SAL COMM (SAL*12)+NVL(COMM,0)
---------- --------- --------- --------------------
KING 5000 60000
BLAKE 2850 34200
CLARK 2450 29400
JONES 2975 35700
MARTIN 1250 1400 16400
ALLEN 1600 300 19500
...
14 rows selected.
69
Using the DECODE Function
Facilitates conditional inquiries by doing the work of a
CASE or IF-THEN-ELSE statement
DECODE(col/expression, search1, result1
[, search2, result2,...,]
[, default])
70







Using the DECODE Function
SQL> SELECT job, sal,
2 DECODE(job, 'ANALYST', SAL*1.1,
3 'CLERK', SAL*1.15,
4 'MANAGER', SAL*1.20,
5 SAL)
6 REVISED_SALARY
7 FROM emp;
JOB SAL REVISED_SALARY
--------- --------- --------------
PRESIDENT 5000 5000
MANAGER 2850 3420
MANAGER 2450 2940
...
14 rows selected.
71
Nesting Functions
Single-row functions can be nested to any level.
They follow Function of Function rule
F3(F2(F1(col,arg1),arg2),arg3)
Step 1 = Result 1
Step 2 = Result 2
Step 3 = Result 3
72
Summary
Perform calculations on data
Modify individual data items
Alter date formats for display
Convert column data types
Review Questions
Review Questions
Review Questions
76
Objectives
Cartesian Products
How to access data from more than one table using
equality and non-equality joins
View data that generally does not meet a join condition
by using outer joins
Join a table to itself
77












EMPNO DEPTNO LOC
----- ------- --------
7839 10 NEW YORK
7698 30 CHICAGO
7782 10 NEW YORK
7566 20 DALLAS
7654 30 CHICAGO
7499 30 CHICAGO
...
14 rows selected.
Getting Data from Multiple Tables
EMP DEPT
EMPNO ENAME ... DEPTNO
------ ----- ... ------
7839 KING ... 10
7698 BLAKE ... 30
...
7934 MILLER ... 10
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ---------- --------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
78
What Is a Join?
Use a join to query data from more than one table.
SELECT table1.column, table2.column
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2;
Write the join condition in the WHERE clause.
Prefix the column name with the table name when the
same column name appears in more than one table.
79
Cartesian Product
A Cartesian product is formed when:
A join condition is omitted
A join condition is invalid
All rows in the first table are joined to all rows in the
second table
80
Cartesian Product
ENAME DNAME
------ ----------
KING ACCOUNTING
BLAKE ACCOUNTING
...
KING RESEARCH
BLAKE RESEARCH
...
56 rows selected.
EMP (14 rows) DEPT (4 rows)
EMPNO ENAME ... DEPTNO
------ ----- ... ------
7839 KING ... 10
7698 BLAKE ... 30
...
7934 MILLER ... 10
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ---------- --------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
Cartesian
product:
14*4=56 rows
81
Types of Joins
Equijoins
Non- Equijoins
Outer Joins
Self Joins
82






























What Is an Equijoin?
EMP
DEPT
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO
------ ------- -------
7839 KING 10
7698 BLAKE 30
7782 CLARK 10
7566 JONES 20
7654 MARTIN 30
7499 ALLEN 30
7844 TURNER 30
7900 JAMES 30
7521 WARD 30
7902 FORD 20
7369 SMITH 20
...
14 rows selected.
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------- ---------- --------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
30 SALES CHICAGO
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
30 SALES CHICAGO
30 SALES CHICAGO
30 SALES CHICAGO
30 SALES CHICAGO
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
...
14 rows selected.
83









Retrieving Records with Equijoins
SQL> SELECT emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.deptno,
2 dept.deptno, dept.loc
3 FROM emp, dept
4 WHERE emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO DEPTNO LOC
----- ------ ------ ------ ---------
7839 KING 10 10 NEW YORK
7698 BLAKE 30 30 CHICAGO
7782 CLARK 10 10 NEW YORK
7566 JONES 20 20 DALLAS
...
14 rows selected.
84




Using Table Aliases
Simplify queries by using table aliases.
SQL> SELECT emp.empno, emp.ename, emp.deptno,
2 dept.deptno, dept.loc
3 FROM emp, dept
4 WHERE emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
SQL> SELECT e.empno, e.ename, e.deptno,
2 d.deptno, d.loc
3 FROM emp e, dept d
4 WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno;
85
Joining More Than Two Tables
NAME CUSTID
----------- ------
JOCKSPORTS 100
TKB SPORT SHOP 101
VOLLYRITE 102
JUST TENNIS 103
K+T SPORTS 105
SHAPE UP 106
WOMENS SPORTS 107
... ...
9 rows selected.
CUSTOMER
CUSTID ORDID
------- -------
101 610
102 611
104 612
106 601
102 602
106 604
106 605
...
21 rows selected.
ORD
ORDID ITEMID
------ -------
610 3
611 1
612 1
601 1
602 1
...
64 rows selected.
ITEM
86



















Non-Equijoins
EMP SALGRADE
salary in the EMP
table is between
low salary and high
salary in the SALGRADE
table
EMPNO ENAME SAL
------ ------- ------
7839 KING 5000
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7566 JONES 2975
7654 MARTIN 1250
7499 ALLEN 1600
7844 TURNER 1500
7900 JAMES 950
...
14 rows selected.
GRADE LOSAL HISAL
----- ----- ------
1 700 1200
2 1201 1400
3 1401 2000
4 2001 3000
5 3001 9999
87









Retrieving Records with Non-Equijoins
ENAME SAL GRADE
---------- --------- ---------
JAMES 950 1
SMITH 800 1
ADAMS 1100 1
...
14 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT e.ename, e.sal, s.grade
2 FROM emp e, salgrade s
3 WHERE e.sal
4 BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal;
88
















Outer Joins
EMP DEPT
No employee in the
OPERATIONS department
ENAME DEPTNO
----- ------
KING 10
BLAKE 30
CLARK 10
JONES 20
...

DEPTNO DNAME
------ ----------
10 ACCOUNTING
30 SALES
10 ACCOUNTING
20 RESEARCH
...
40 OPERATIONS
89
Outer Joins
You use an outer join to also see rows that do not
usually meet the join condition.
Outer join operator is the plus sign (+).

SELECT table.column, table.column
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column(+) = table2.column;
SELECT table.column, table.column
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column = table2.column(+);
90









Using Outer Joins
SQL> SELECT e.ename, d.deptno, d.dname
2 FROM emp e, dept d
3 WHERE e.deptno(+) = d.deptno
4 ORDER BY e.deptno;
ENAME DEPTNO DNAME
---------- --------- -------------
KING 10 ACCOUNTING
CLARK 10 ACCOUNTING
...
40 OPERATIONS
15 rows selected.
91
















Self Joins
EMP (WORKER) EMP (MANAGER)
"MGR in the WORKER table is equal to EMPNO in the
MANAGER table"
EMPNO ENAME MGR
----- ------ ----
7839 KING
7698 BLAKE 7839
7782 CLARK 7839
7566 JONES 7839
7654 MARTIN 7698
7499 ALLEN 7698
EMPNO ENAME
----- --------

7839 KING
7839 KING
7839 KING
7698 BLAKE
7698 BLAKE
92


Joining a Table to Itself
WORKER.ENAME||'WORKSFOR'||MANAG
-------------------------------
BLAKE works for KING
CLARK works for KING
JONES works for KING
MARTIN works for BLAKE
...
13 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT worker.ename||' works for '||manager.ename
2 FROM emp worker, emp manager
3 WHERE worker.mgr = manager.empno;
93
Summary
SELECT table1.column, table2.column
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2;
Types of Joins

Equijoins
Non- Equijoins
Outer Joins
Self Joins
97
Objectives
Various group functions
Group data using the GROUP BY clause
Include or exclude grouped rows by using the HAVING
clause
98




















What Are Group Functions?
Group functions operate on sets of rows to give one result
per group.
EMP
maximum
salary in
the EMP table
DEPTNO SAL
--------- ---------
10 2450
10 5000
10 1300
20 800
20 1100
20 3000
20 3000
20 2975
30 1600
30 2850
30 1250
30 950
30 1500
30 1250
MAX(SAL)
---------
5000
99
Common Group Functions
AVG
COUNT
MAX
MIN
STDDEV
SUM
VARIANCE
100
Using Group Functions



SELECT column, group_function(column)
FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column];
101





Using the COUNT Function
COUNT(*)
---------
6
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*)
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE deptno = 30;
COUNT(*) returns the number of rows in a table.
102





Using the COUNT Function
COUNT(expr) returns the number of nonnull rows.
SQL> SELECT COUNT(comm)
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE deptno = 30;
COUNT(COMM)
-----------
4
103





Group Functions and Null Values
Group functions ignore null values in the column.
SQL> SELECT AVG(comm)
2 FROM emp;
AVG(COMM)
---------
550
104





Using the NVL Function with Group Functions
The NVL function forces group functions to include null values.
SQL> SELECT AVG(NVL(comm,0))
2 FROM emp;
AVG(NVL(COMM,0))
----------------
157.14286
105






















Creating Groups of Data
EMP
average
salary
in EMP
table
for each
department
2916.6667
2175
1566.6667
DEPTNO SAL
--------- ---------
10 2450
10 5000
10 1300
20 800
20 1100
20 3000
20 3000
20 2975
30 1600
30 2850
30 1250
30 950
30 1500
30 1250


DEPTNO AVG(SAL)
------- ---------
10 2916.6667
20 2175
30 1566.6667
106
Using the GROUP BY Clause



SELECT column, group_function(column)
FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[ORDER BY column];
Divide rows in a table into smaller groups by using the GROUP
BY clause.
107




Using the GROUP BY Clause
All columns in the SELECT list that are not in group functions
must be in the GROUP BY clause.
SQL> SELECT deptno, AVG(sal)
2 FROM emp
3 GROUP BY deptno;
DEPTNO AVG(SAL)
--------- ---------
10 2916.6667
20 2175
30 1566.6667
108












Grouping by More Than One Column

















EMP
sum salaries in
the EMP table
for each job,
grouped by
department
DEPTNO JOB SAL
--------- --------- ---------
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
10 CLERK 1300
20 CLERK 800
20 CLERK 1100
20 ANALYST 3000
20 ANALYST 3000
20 MANAGER 2975
30 SALESMAN 1600
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 1250
30 CLERK 950
30 SALESMAN 1500
30 SALESMAN 1250
JOB SUM(SAL)
--------- ---------
CLERK 1300
MANAGER 2450
PRESIDENT 5000
ANALYST 6000
CLERK 1900
MANAGER 2975
CLERK 950
MANAGER 2850
SALESMAN 5600
DEPTNO
--------
10
10
10
20
20
20
30
30
30
109




Using the GROUP BY Clause on Multiple Columns
SQL> SELECT deptno, job, sum(sal)
2 FROM emp
3 GROUP BY deptno, job;
DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)
--------- --------- ---------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
...
9 rows selected.
110
Illegal Queries Using Group Functions
Any column or expression in the SELECT list that is not an
aggregate function must be in the GROUP BY clause.
SQL> SELECT deptno, COUNT(ename)
2 FROM emp;
SELECT deptno, COUNT(ename)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function
111
Illegal Queries Using Group Functions
You cannot use the WHERE clause to restrict
groups.Use the HAVING clause to restrict groups.
SQL> SELECT deptno, AVG(sal)
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE AVG(sal) > 2000
4 GROUP BY deptno;
WHERE AVG(sal) > 2000
*
ERROR at line 3:
ORA-00934: group function is not allowed here
112





















Segregating Group Results
maximum
salary
per department
greater than
$2900
EMP
5000
3000
2850
DEPTNO SAL
--------- ---------
10 2450
10 5000
10 1300
20 800
20 1100
20 3000
20 3000
20 2975
30 1600
30 2850
30 1250
30 950
30 1500
30 1250
DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
--------- ---------
10 5000
20 3000
113


Using the HAVING Clause
Use the HAVING clause to restrict groups
Only the Groups matching the HAVING clause are
displayed.
SELECT column, group_function
FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];
114




Using the HAVING Clause
SQL> SELECT deptno, max(sal)
2 FROM emp
3 GROUP BY deptno
4 HAVING max(sal)>2900;
DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
--------- ---------
10 5000
20 3000
115
Using the HAVING Clause


SQL> SELECT job, SUM(sal) PAYROLL
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE job NOT LIKE 'SALES%'
4 GROUP BY job
5 HAVING SUM(sal)>5000
6 ORDER BY SUM(sal);


JOB PAYROLL
--------- ---------
ANALYST 6000
MANAGER 8275
116




Nesting Group Functions
SQL> SELECT max(avg(sal))
2 FROM emp
3 GROUP BY deptno;
MAX(AVG(SAL))
-------------
2916.6667
Display the maximum average salary.
117


Summary
SELECT column, group_function (column)
FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];
Order of evaluation of the clauses:
WHERE clause
GROUP BY clause
HAVING clause
Review Questions
Review Questions
120
Objectives
Describe the types of problems that subqueries can
solve
Define subqueries
List the types of subqueries
Write single-row , multiple-row and multiple column
subqueries
121
Using a Subquery to Solve a Problem
Who has a salary greater than Joness?
Which employees have a salary greater
than Joness salary?
Main Query
?
What is Joness salary?
?
Subquery
122


Subqueries
The subquery (inner query) executes once before the
main query.
The result of the subquery is used by the main query
(outer query).
SELECT select_list
FROM table
WHERE expr operator
(SELECT select_list
FROM table);
123
2975
SQL> SELECT ename
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal >
4 (SELECT sal
5 FROM emp
6 WHERE empno=7566);





Using a Subquery
ENAME
----------
KING
FORD
SCOTT
124
Guidelines for Using Subqueries
Enclose subqueries in parentheses.
Place subqueries on the right side of the comparison
operator.
Do not add an ORDER BY clause to a subquery.
Use single-row operators with single-row subqueries.
Use multiple-row operators with multiple-row
subqueries.
125
Types of Subqueries
Single-row subquery
Main query
Subquery

returns
CLERK
Multiple-row subquery
CLERK
MANAGER
Main query
Subquery

returns
Multiple-column subquery
CLERK 7900
MANAGER 7698
Main query
Subquery

returns
126
Single-Row Subqueries
Return only one row
Use single-row comparison operators
Operator
=
>
>=
<
<=
<>
Meaning
Equal to
Greater than
Greater than or equal to
Less than
Less than or equal to
Not equal to
127


Executing Single-Row Subqueries
CLERK
1100
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
MILLER CLERK
SQL> SELECT ename, job
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE job =
4 (SELECT job
5 FROM emp
6 WHERE empno = 7369)
7 AND sal >
8 (SELECT sal
9 FROM emp
10 WHERE empno = 7876);
128


Using Group Functions in a Subquery
800
ENAME JOB SAL
---------- --------- ---------
SMITH CLERK 800
SQL> SELECT ename, job, sal
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal =
4 (SELECT MIN(sal)
5 FROM emp);
129


HAVING Clause with Subqueries
The Oracle Server executes subqueries first.
800
SQL> SELECT deptno, MIN(sal)
2 FROM emp
3 GROUP BY deptno
4 HAVING MIN(sal) >
5 (SELECT MIN(sal)
6 FROM emp
7 WHERE deptno = 20);
130


What Is Wrong with This Statement?
ERROR:
ORA-01427: single-row subquery returns more than
one row

no rows selected
SQL> SELECT empno, ename
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal =
4 (SELECT MIN(sal)
5 FROM emp
6 GROUP BY deptno);
131


Will This Statement Work?
no rows selected
SQL> SELECT ename, job
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE job =
4 (SELECT job
5 FROM emp
6 WHERE ename='SMYTHE');
132
Multiple-Row Subqueries
Return more than one row
Use multiple-row comparison operators
Operator
IN
ANY

ALL
Meaning
Equal to any member in the list
Compare value to each value returned by the
subquery
Compare value to every value returned by the
subquery
133


Using ANY Operator in Multiple-Row Subqueries
950
800
1100
1300
EMPNO ENAME JOB
--------- ---------- ---------
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN
7521 WARD SALESMAN
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal < ANY
4 (SELECT sal
5 FROM emp
6 WHERE job = 'CLERK')
7 AND job <> 'CLERK';
134


Using ALL Operator in Multiple-Row Subqueries
2916.6667
2175
1566.6667
EMPNO ENAME JOB
--------- ---------- ---------
7839 KING PRESIDENT
7566 JONES MANAGER
7902 FORD ANALYST
7788 SCOTT ANALYST
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE sal > ALL
4 (SELECT avg(sal)
5 FROM emp
6 GROUP BY deptno);
135
Multiple-Column Subqueries
Main query
MANAGER 10
Subquery
SALESMAN 30
MANAGER 10
CLERK 20

Main query
compares
MANAGER 10
Values from a multiple-row and
multiple-column subquery
SALESMAN 30
MANAGER 10
CLERK 20

to
136


Using Multiple-Column Subqueries
Display the name, department number, salary, and commission
of any employee whose salary and commission matches both
the commission and salary of any employee in department 30.
SQL> SELECT ename, deptno, sal, comm
2 FROM emp
3 WHERE (sal, NVL(comm,-1)) IN
4 (SELECT sal, NVL(comm,-1)
5 FROM emp
6 WHERE deptno = 30);
137


Using a Subquery in the FROM Clause
ENAME SAL DEPTNO SALAVG
---------- --------- --------- ----------
KING 5000 10 2916.6667
JONES 2975 20 2175
SCOTT 3000 20 2175
...
6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT a.ename, a.sal, a.deptno, b.salavg
2 FROM emp a, (SELECT deptno, avg(sal) salavg
3 FROM emp
4 GROUP BY deptno) b
5 WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno
6 AND a.sal > b.salavg;
138
Summary
Single row subqueries

A multiple-column subquery returns more than one
column.

A multiple-column subquery can also be used in the
FROM clause of a SELECT statement.
Review Questions
Review Questions
Review Questions
142
Objectives
Insert rows into a table
Update rows in a table
Delete rows from a table
Controlling the Transactions
143
Data Manipulation Language
A DML statement is executed when you:
Add new rows to a table
Modify existing rows in a table
Remove existing rows from a table
A transaction consists of a collection of DML
statements that form a logical unit of work.
144
The INSERT Statement
Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT
statement.
INSERT INTO table [(column [, column...])]
VALUES (value [, value...]);
145
Inserting New Rows
Insert a new row containing values for each column.
List values in the default order of the columns in the
table.
Optionally list the columns in the INSERT clause.

Enclose character and date values within single
quotation marks.
SQL> INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname, loc)
2 VALUES (50, 'DEVELOPMENT', 'DETROIT');
1 row created.
146




Inserting Rows with Null Values
Implicit method: Omit the column from the column list.
SQL> INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname )
2 VALUES (60, 'MIS');
1 row created.
Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword.
SQL> INSERT INTO dept
2 VALUES (70, 'FINANCE', NULL);
1 row created.
147


Inserting Special Values
The SYSDATE and USER function records the current date
and time.
SQL> INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, job,
2 mgr, hiredate, sal, comm,
3 deptno)
4 VALUES (7196, USER, 'SALESMAN',
5 7782, SYSDATE, 2000, NULL,
6 10);
1 row created.
148





Inserting Specific Date Values
Add a new employee.
SQL> INSERT INTO emp
2 VALUES (2296,'AROMANO','SALESMAN',7782,
3 TO_DATE('FEB 3,97', 'MON DD, YY'),
4 1300, NULL, 10);
1 row created.
Verify your addition.
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
----- ------- -------- ---- --------- ---- ---- -----
2296 AROMANO SALESMAN 7782 03-FEB-97 1300 10
149





Inserting Values by Using Substitution (&) Variables
Create an interactive script by using SQL*Plus substitution
parameters.
SQL> INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname, loc)
2 VALUES (&department_id,
3 '&department_name', '&location');
Enter value for department_id: 80
Enter value for department_name: EDUCATION
Enter value for location: ATLANTA

1 row created.
150
Creating a Script with Customized Prompts
ACCEPT stores the value into a variable.
PROMPT displays your customized text.
ACCEPT department_id PROMPT 'Please enter the -
department number:'
ACCEPT department_name PROMPT 'Please enter -
the department name:'
ACCEPT location PROMPT 'Please enter the -
location:'
INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname, loc)
VALUES (&department_id, '&department_name',
'&location');
151


Copying Rows from Another Table
Write your INSERT statement with a subquery.

SQL> INSERT INTO managers(id, name, salary, hiredate)
2 SELECT empno, ename, sal, hiredate
3 FROM emp
4 WHERE job = 'MANAGER';
3 rows created.
Do not use the VALUES clause.
Match the number of columns in the INSERT clause to
those in the subquery.
152
The UPDATE Statement
Modify existing rows with the UPDATE statement.
UPDATE table
SET column = value [, column = value]
[WHERE condition];
Update more than one row at a time, if required.
153
Updating Rows in a Table
All rows in the table are modified if you omit the WHERE
clause.
SQL> UPDATE employee
2 SET deptno = 20;
14 rows updated.
154
UPDATE emp
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (USR.EMP_DEPTNO_FK)
violated - parent key not found
SQL> UPDATE emp
2 SET deptno = 55
3 WHERE deptno = 10;
Updating Rows: Integrity Constraint Error
155
The DELETE Statement
You can remove existing rows from a table by using the
DELETE statement.
DELETE [FROM] table
[WHERE condition];
156
Specific row or rows are deleted when you specify the
WHERE clause.
Deleting Rows from a Table
SQL> DELETE FROM department
2 WHERE dname = 'DEVELOPMENT';
1 row deleted.
SQL> DELETE FROM department;
4 rows deleted.
All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE
clause.
157
Deleting Rows: Integrity Constraint Error
SQL> DELETE FROM dept
2 WHERE deptno = 10;
DELETE FROM dept
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (USR.EMP_DEPTNO_FK)
violated - child record found
158
Database Transactions
Consist of one of the following statements:
DML statements that make up one consistent change to
the data
One DDL statement
One DCL statement
159
Database Transactions
Begin when the first executable SQL statement is
executed
End with one of the following events:
COMMIT or ROLLBACK
DDL or DCL statement executes (automatic commit)
User exits
System crashes
160
DELETE
Controlling Transactions
Transaction
Savepoint A
ROLLBACK to Savepoint B
DELETE
Savepoint B COMMIT
INSERT UPDATE
ROLLBACK to Savepoint A
INSERT UPDATE INSERT
ROLLBACK
INSERT
161
State of the Data Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK
The previous state of the data can be recovered.
The current user can review the results of the DML
operations by using the SELECT statement.
Other users cannot view the results of the DML
statements by the current user.
The affected rows are locked; other users cannot
change the data within the affected rows.
162
State of the Data After COMMIT
Data changes are made permanent in the database.
The previous state of the data is permanently lost.
All users can view the results.
Locks on the affected rows are released; those rows are
available for other users to manipulate.
All savepoints are erased.
163
Committing Data
SQL> UPDATE emp
2 SET deptno = 10
3 WHERE empno = 7782;
1 row updated.
Make the changes.
Commit the changes.
SQL> COMMIT;
Commit complete.
164


State of the Data After ROLLBACK
Discard all pending changes by using the ROLLBACK
statement.
Data changes are undone.
Previous state of the data is restored.
Locks on the affected rows are released.
SQL> DELETE FROM employee;
14 rows deleted.
SQL> ROLLBACK;
Rollback complete.
165
Rolling Back Changes to a Marker
Create a marker within a current transaction by using
the SAVEPOINT statement.
Roll back to that marker by using the ROLLBACK TO
SAVEPOINT statement.
SQL> UPDATE...
SQL> SAVEPOINT update_done;
Savepoint created.
SQL> INSERT...
SQL> ROLLBACK TO update_done;
Rollback complete.
166
Statement-Level Rollback
If a single DML statement fails during execution, only
that statement is rolled back.
Oracle Server implements an implicit savepoint.
All other changes are retained.
The user should terminate transactions explicitly by
executing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement.
167
Read Consistency
Read consistency guarantees a consistent view of the
data at all times.
Changes made by one user do not conflict with changes
made by another user.
Ensures that on the same data:
Readers do not wait for writers
Writers do not wait for readers
168
Summary
Description
Adds a new row to the table
Modifies existing rows in the table
Removes existing rows from the table
Makes all pending changes permanent
Allows a rollback to the savepoint marker
Discards all pending data changes
Statement
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
COMMIT
SAVEPOINT
ROLLBACK
Review Questions
170
Objectives
Describe the main database objects
Create tables
Describe the datatypes that can be used when
specifying column definition
Alter table definitions
Drop, rename, and truncate tables
171
Database Objects
Object Description
Table Basic unit of storage; composed of rows
and columns
View Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Sequence Generates primary key values
Index Improves the performance of some queries
Synonym Gives alternative names to objects
172
Naming Conventions
Must begin with a letter
Can be 130 characters long
Must contain only AZ, az, 09, _, $, and #
Must not duplicate the name of another object owned
by the same user
Must not be an Oracle Server reserved word
173
The CREATE TABLE Statement
You must have :
CREATE TABLE privilege
A storage area



You specify:
Table name
Column name, column datatype, and column size



CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr];
174
Referencing Another Users Tables
Tables belonging to other users are not in the users
schema.
You should use the owners name as a prefix to the
table.
175
The DEFAULT Option
Specify a default value for a column during an insert.



hiredate DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE,
Legal values are literal value, expression, or SQL function.
Illegal values are another columns name or pseudocolumn.
The default datatype must match the column datatype.
176
Creating Tables






SQL> CREATE TABLE dept
2 (deptno NUMBER(2),
3 dname VARCHAR2(14),
4 loc VARCHAR2(13));
Table created.
Create the table.
Confirm table creation.
SQL> DESCRIBE dept
Name Null? Type
--------------------------- -------- ---------
DEPTNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(14)
LOC VARCHAR2(13)
177
Querying the Data Dictionary
Describe tables owned by the user.








View distinct object types owned by the user.
View tables, views, synonyms, and sequences owned by
the user.
SQL> SELECT *
2 FROM user_tables;
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT object_type
2 FROM user_objects;
SQL> SELECT *
2 FROM user_catalog;
178
Datatypes
Datatype Description
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data
DATE Date and time values
LONG Variable-length character data
up to 2 gigabytes
CLOB Single-byte character data up to 4
gigabytes
RAW and LONG RAW Raw binary data
BLOB Binary data up to 4 gigabytes
BFILE Binary data stored in an external
file; up to 4 gigabytes
179
Creating a Table Using a Subquery
Create a table and insert rows by combining the CREATE
TABLE statement and AS subquery option.



CREATE TABLE table
[column(, column...)]
AS subquery;
180







SQL> CREATE TABLE dept30
2 AS
3 SELECT empno,ename,sal*12 ANNSAL,hiredate
4 FROM emp
5 WHERE deptno = 30;

Table created.
Creating a Table Using a Subquery


Name Null? Type
---------------------------- -------- -----
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
ANNSAL NUMBER
HIREDATE DATE
SQL> DESCRIBE dept30
181
The ALTER TABLE Statement
Use the ALTER TABLE statement to:
Add a new column
Modify an existing column
Define a default value for the new column








ALTER TABLE table
ADD (column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[, column datatype]...);
ALTER TABLE table
MODIFY (column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[, column datatype]...);
182
Adding a Column







DEPT30
EMPNO ENAME ANNSAL HIREDATE
------ ---------- --------
7698 BLAKE 34200 01-MAY-81
7654 MARTIN 15000 28-SEP-81
7499 ALLEN 19200 20-FEB-81
7844 TURNER 18000 08-SEP-81
...
add a
new
column
into
DEPT30
table







DEPT30
EMPNO ENAME ANNSAL HIREDATE
------ ---------- --------
7698 BLAKE 34200 01-MAY-81
7654 MARTIN 15000 28-SEP-81
7499 ALLEN 19200 20-FEB-81
7844 TURNER 18000 08-SEP-81
...







JOB







JOB
New column
183
Adding a Column
You use the ADD clause to add columns.




EMPNO ENAME ANNSAL HIREDATE JOB
--------- ---------- --------- --------- ----
7698 BLAKE 34200 01-MAY-81
7654 MARTIN 15000 28-SEP-81
7499 ALLEN 19200 20-FEB-81
7844 TURNER 18000 08-SEP-81
...
6 rows selected.
SQL> ALTER TABLE dept30
2 ADD (job VARCHAR2(9));
Table altered.
The new column becomes the last column.
184
Modifying a Column
You can change a column's datatype, size, and default
value.







A change to the default value affects only subsequent
insertions to the table.




ALTER TABLE dept30
MODIFY (ename VARCHAR2(15));
Table altered.
185
Dropping a Table
All data and structure in the table is deleted.
Any pending transactions are committed.
All indexes are dropped.
You cannot roll back this statement.



SQL> DROP TABLE dept30;
Table dropped.
186
Changing the Name of an Object
To change the name of a table, view, sequence, or
synonym, you execute the RENAME statement.







You must be the owner of the object.



SQL> RENAME dept TO department;
Table renamed.
187
Truncating a Table
The TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
Removes all rows from a table
Releases the storage space used by that table






Cannot roll back row removal when using TRUNCATE
Alternatively, remove rows by using the DELETE
statement



SQL> TRUNCATE TABLE department;
Table truncated.
188
Adding Comments to a Table
You can add comments to a table or column by using the
COMMENT statement.





Comments can be viewed through the data dictionary
views.
ALL_COL_COMMENTS
USER_COL_COMMENTS
ALL_TAB_COMMENTS
USER_TAB_COMMENTS




SQL> COMMENT ON TABLE emp
2 IS 'Employee Information';
Comment created.
Review Questions
190
What Are Constraints?
Constraints enforce rules at the table level.Constraints
prevent the deletion of a table if there are
dependencies.
The following constraint types are valid in Oracle:
NOT NULL
UNIQUE Key
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
191
Constraint Guidelines
Name a constraint or the Oracle Server will generate a
name by using the SYS_Cn format.
Create a constraint:
At the same time as the table is created
After the table has been created
Define a constraint at the column or table level.
View a constraint in the data dictionary.
192
Defining Constraints



CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[column_constraint],

[table_constraint]);



CREATE TABLE emp(
empno NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(10),

deptno NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT emp_empno_pk
PRIMARY KEY (EMPNO));
193
Defining Constraints
Column constraint level




Table constraint level
column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type,
column,...
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type
(column, ...),
194
The NOT NULL Constraint
Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column







EMP
EMPNO ENAME JOB ... COMM DEPTNO

7839 KING PRESIDENT 10
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 10
7566 JONES MANAGER 20
...
NOT NULL constraint
(no row may contain
a null value for
this column)
Absence of NOT NULL
constraint
(any row can contain
null for this column)
NOT NULL constraint
195






The NOT NULL Constraint
Defined at the column level
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp(
2 empno NUMBER(4),
3 ename VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
4 job VARCHAR2(9),
5 mgr NUMBER(4),
6 hiredate DATE,
7 sal NUMBER(7,2),
8 comm NUMBER(7,2),
9 deptno NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL);
196
The UNIQUE Key Constraint






DEPT
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ---------- --------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
UNIQUE key constraint



50 SALES DETROIT

60 BOSTON
Insert into
Not allowed
(DNAME-SALES
already exists)
Allowed
197
The UNIQUE Key Constraint
Defined at either the table level or the column level






SQL> CREATE TABLE dept(
2 deptno NUMBER(2),
3 dname VARCHAR2(14),
4 loc VARCHAR2(13),
5 CONSTRAINT dept_dname_uk UNIQUE(dname));
198
The PRIMARY KEY Constraint






DEPT
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ---------- --------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
PRIMARY KEY
Insert into



20 MARKETING DALLAS

FINANCE NEW YORK
Not allowed
(DEPTNO-20 already
exists)
Not allowed
(DEPTNO is null)
199
The PRIMARY KEY Constraint
Defined at either the table level or the column level








SQL> CREATE TABLE dept(
2 deptno NUMBER(2),
3 dname VARCHAR2(14),
4 loc VARCHAR2(13),
5 CONSTRAINT dept_dname_uk UNIQUE (dname),
6 CONSTRAINT dept_deptno_pk PRIMARY KEY(deptno));
200
The FOREIGN KEY Constraint





DEPT
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ---------- --------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
...
PRIMARY
KEY





EMP
EMPNO ENAME JOB ... COMM DEPTNO

7839 KING PRESIDENT 10
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30
...
FOREIGN
KEY




7571 FORD MANAGER ... 200 9
7571 FORD MANAGER ... 200
Insert into
Not allowed
(DEPTNO-9
does not exist
in the DEPT
table
Allowed

201
The FOREIGN KEY Constraint
Defined at either the table level or the column level






SQL> CREATE TABLE emp(
2 empno NUMBER(4),
3 ename VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
4 job VARCHAR2(9),
5 mgr NUMBER(4),
6 hiredate DATE,
7 sal NUMBER(7,2),
8 comm NUMBER(7,2),
9 deptno NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL,
10 CONSTRAINT emp_deptno_fk FOREIGN KEY (deptno)
11 REFERENCES dept (deptno));
202
FOREIGN KEY Constraint Keywords
FOREIGN KEY
Defines the column in the child table at
the table constraint level
REFERENCES
Identifies the table and column in the parent table
ON DELETE CASCADE
Allows deletion in the parent table and deletion of the
dependent rows in the child table
203
The CHECK Constraint
Defines a condition that each row must satisfy
Expressions that are not allowed:
References to pseudocolumns CURRVAL,
NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and ROWNUM
Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV
functions
Queries that refer to other values in other rows
..., deptno NUMBER(2),
CONSTRAINT emp_deptno_ck
CHECK (DEPTNO BETWEEN 10 AND 99),...
204
Adding a Constraint
Add or drop, but not modify, a constraint
Enable or disable constraints
Add a NOT NULL constraint by using the MODIFY
clause
ALTER TABLE table
ADD [CONSTRAINT constraint] type (column);
205
Adding a Constraint
Add a FOREIGN KEY constraint to the EMP table indicating that a
manager must already exist as a valid employee in the EMP table.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp
2 ADD CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_fk
3 FOREIGN KEY(mgr) REFERENCES emp(empno);
Table altered.
206
Dropping a Constraint
Remove the manager constraint from the EMP table.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp
2 DROP CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_fk;
Table altered.
Remove the PRIMARY KEY constraint on the DEPT table
and drop the associated FOREIGN KEY constraint on
the EMP.DEPTNO column.
SQL> ALTER TABLE dept
2 DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
Table altered.
207
Disabling Constraints
Execute the DISABLE clause of the ALTER TABLE
statement to deactivate an integrity constraint.
Apply the CASCADE option to disable dependent
integrity constraints.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp
2 DISABLE CONSTRAINT emp_empno_pk CASCADE;
Table altered.
208
Enabling Constraints
Activate an integrity constraint currently disabled in
the table definition by using the ENABLE clause.






A UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY index is automatically
created if you enable a UNIQUE key or PRIMARY
KEY constraint.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp
2 ENABLE CONSTRAINT emp_empno_pk;
Table altered.
209


Viewing Constraints
Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all constraint
definitions and names.
CONSTRAINT_NAME C SEARCH_CONDITION
------------------------ - -------------------------
SYS_C00674 C EMPNO IS NOT NULL
SYS_C00675 C DEPTNO IS NOT NULL
EMP_EMPNO_PK P
...
SQL> SELECT constraint_name, constraint_type,
2 search_condition
3 FROM user_constraints
4 WHERE table_name = 'EMP';
210
Viewing the Columns Associated with Constraints
CONSTRAINT_NAME COLUMN_NAME
------------------------- ----------------------
EMP_DEPTNO_FK DEPTNO
EMP_EMPNO_PK EMPNO
EMP_MGR_FK MGR
SYS_C00674 EMPNO
SYS_C00675 DEPTNO
SQL> SELECT constraint_name, column_name
2 FROM user_cons_columns
3 WHERE table_name = 'EMP';
View the columns associated with the constraint names in the
USER_CONS_COLUMNS view
211
Summary
Create the following types of constraints:
NOT NULL
UNIQUE key
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all
constraint definitions and names.
Review Questions
213
Objectives
Describe a view
Create a view
Retrieve data through a view
Alter the definition of a view
Insert, update, and delete data through
a view
Drop a view
214
















Database Objects
Description
Basic unit of storage; composed of rows
and columns
Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Generates primary key values
Improves the performance of some queries
Alternative name for an object
Object
Table

View

Sequence
Index
Synonym
215
Why Use Views?
To restrict database access
To make complex queries easy
To allow data independence
To present different views of the same data
216
Simple Views and Complex Views
Feature Simple View Complex View
Number of tables One One or More
Contain Functions No Yes
Contain Groups of
data
No Yes
DML via View Yes Not Always
217
Creating a View
You embed a subquery within the CREATE VIEW
statement.





The subquery can contain complex SELECT syntax.
The subquery cannot contain an ORDER BY clause.
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE|NOFORCE] VIEW view
[(alias[, alias]...)]
AS subquery
[WITH CHECK OPTION [CONSTRAINT constraint]]
[WITH READ ONLY]
218


Creating a View
Create a view, EMPVU10, that contains details of
employees in department 10.
Describe the structure of the view by using the SQL*Plus
DESCRIBE command.
SQL> DESCRIBE empvu10
SQL> CREATE VIEW empvu10
2 AS SELECT empno, ename, job
3 FROM emp
4 WHERE deptno = 10;
View created.
219


Creating a View
Create a view by using column aliases in the
subquery.




Select the columns from this view by the given alias
names.
SQL> CREATE VIEW salvu30
2 AS SELECT empno EMPLOYEE_NUMBER, ename NAME,
3 sal SALARY
4 FROM emp
5 WHERE deptno = 30;
View created.
220


Retrieving Data from a View
EMPLOYEE_NUMBER NAME SALARY
--------------- ---------- ---------
7698 BLAKE 2850
7654 MARTIN 1250
7499 ALLEN 1600
7844 TURNER 1500
7900 JAMES 950
7521 WARD 1250

6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT *
2 FROM salvu30;
221
Querying a View
USER_VIEWS

EMPVU10
SELECT empno, ename, job
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 10;
SQL*Plus

SELECT *
FROM empvu10;
EMP


7839 KING PRESIDENT
7782 CLARK MANAGER
7934 MILLER CLERK
222


Modifying a View
Modify the EMPVU10 view by using CREATE OR
REPLACE VIEW clause. Add an alias for each column
name.







Column aliases in the CREATE VIEW clause are listed
in the same order as the columns in the subquery.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu10
2 (employee_number, employee_name, job_title)
3 AS SELECT empno, ename, job
4 FROM emp
5 WHERE deptno = 10;
View created.
223


Creating a Complex View
Create a complex view that contains group functions to
display values from two tables.
SQL> CREATE VIEW dept_sum_vu
2 (name, minsal, maxsal, avgsal)
3 AS SELECT d.dname, MIN(e.sal), MAX(e.sal),
4 AVG(e.sal)
5 FROM emp e, dept d
6 WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno
7 GROUP BY d.dname;
View created.
224
Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View
You can perform DML operations on simple views.
You cannot remove a row if the view contains the
following:
Group functions
A GROUP BY clause
The DISTINCT keyword
225
Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View
You cannot modify data in a view if it contains:
Any of the conditions mentioned in the previous
slide
Columns defined by expressions
The ROWNUM pseudocolumn
You cannot add data if:
The view contains any of the conditions mentioned
above or in the previous slide
There are NOT NULL columns in the base tables that
are not selected by the view
226


Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Clause
You can ensure that DML on the view stays
within the domain of the view by using the WITH CHECK
OPTION.
Any attempt to change the department number for any row
in the view will fail because it violates the WITH CHECK
OPTION constraint.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu20
2 AS SELECT *
3 FROM emp
4 WHERE deptno = 20
5 WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT empvu20_ck;
View created.
227


Denying DML Operations
You can ensure that no DML operations occur by
adding the WITH READ ONLY option to your view
definition.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu10
2 (employee_number, employee_name, job_title)
3 AS SELECT empno, ename, job
4 FROM emp
5 WHERE deptno = 10
6 WITH READ ONLY;
View created.
Any attempt to perform a DML on any row in the view
will result in Oracle Server error ORA-01752.
228


Removing a View
Remove a view without losing data because a view is based on
underlying tables in the database.
SQL> DROP VIEW empvu10;
View dropped.
DROP VIEW view;
229
Summary
A view is derived from data in other tables or other
views.
A view provides the following advantages:
Restricts database access
Simplifies queries
Provides data independence
Allows multiple views of the same data
Can be dropped without removing the underlying
data
Review Questions
231
Objectives

Describe some database objects and their uses
Create, maintain, and use sequences
Create and maintain indexes
Create private and public synonyms
232
















Database Objects
Description
Basic unit of storage; composed of rows
and columns
Logically represents subsets of data from
one or more tables
Generates primary key values
Improves the performance of some queries
Alternative name for an object
Object
Table

View

Sequence
Index
Synonym
233
What Is a Sequence?
Automatically generates unique numbers
Is a sharable object
Is typically used to create a primary key value
Replaces application code
Speeds up the efficiency of accessing sequence
values when cached in memory
234
The CREATE SEQUENCE Statement
Define a sequence to generate sequential numbers
automatically
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence
[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];
235
Creating a Sequence
Create a sequence named DEPT_DEPTNO to be used for
the primary key of the
DEPT table.
Do not use the CYCLE option.
SQL> CREATE SEQUENCE dept_deptno
2 INCREMENT BY 1
3 START WITH 91
4 MAXVALUE 100
5 NOCACHE
6 NOCYCLE;
Sequence created.
236
Confirming Sequences
Verify your sequence values in the
USER_SEQUENCES data dictionary table.







The LAST_NUMBER column displays the next
available sequence number.
SQL> SELECT sequence_name, min_value, max_value,
2 increment_by, last_number
3 FROM user_sequences;
237
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns
NEXTVAL returns the next available sequence value.
It returns a unique value every time it is referenced,
even for different users.
CURRVAL obtains the current sequence value.
NEXTVAL must be issued for that sequence before
CURRVAL contains a value.
238
Using a Sequence
Insert a new department named MARKETING in San
Diego.



View the current value for the DEPT_DEPTNO sequence.
SQL> INSERT INTO dept(deptno, dname, loc)
2 VALUES (dept_deptno.NEXTVAL,
3 'MARKETING', 'SAN DIEGO');
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT dept_deptno.CURRVAL
2 FROM dual;
239
Using a Sequence
Caching sequence values in memory allows faster
access to those values.
Gaps in sequence values can occur when:
A rollback occurs
The system crashes
A sequence is used in another table
View the next available sequence, if it was created with
NOCACHE, by querying the USER_SEQUENCES table.
240
Modifying a Sequence
Change the increment value, maximum value, minimum
value, cycle option, or cache option.
SQL> ALTER SEQUENCE dept_deptno
2 INCREMENT BY 1
3 MAXVALUE 999999
4 NOCACHE
5 NOCYCLE;
Sequence altered.
241
Removing a Sequence
Remove a sequence from the data dictionary by using
the DROP SEQUENCE statement.
Once removed, the sequence can no longer be
referenced.
SQL> DROP SEQUENCE dept_deptno;
Sequence dropped.
242
What Is an Index?
Schema object
Used by the Oracle Server to speed up the retrieval of
rows by using a pointer
Reduces disk I/O by using rapid path access method to
locate the data quickly
Independent of the table it indexes
Automatically used and maintained by the Oracle Server
243
How Are Indexes Created?
Automatically
A unique index is created automatically when you
define a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE key constraint in a
table definition.
Manually
Users can create nonunique indexes on columns to
speed up access time to the rows.
244
Creating an Index
Improve the speed of query access on the ENAME
column in the EMP table
SQL> CREATE INDEX emp_ename_idx
2 ON emp(ename);
Index created.
CREATE INDEX index
ON table (column[, column]...);
Create an index on one or more columns
245


Confirming Indexes
The USER_INDEXES data dictionary view contains the name
of the index and its uniqueness.
The USER_IND_COLUMNS view contains the index name,
the table name, and the column name.
SQL> SELECT ic.index_name, ic.column_name,
2 ic.column_position col_pos,ix.uniqueness
3 FROM user_indexes ix, user_ind_columns ic
4 WHERE ic.index_name = ix.index_name
5 AND ic.table_name = 'EMP';
246
Removing an Index
Remove an index from the data dictionary.



Remove the EMP_ENAME_IDX index from the data dictionary.




To drop an index, you must be the owner of the index or have
the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.
SQL> DROP INDEX emp_ename_idx;
Index dropped.
SQL> DROP INDEX index;
247
Synonyms
Simplify access to objects by creating a synonym (another
name for an object).
Refer to a table owned by another user.
Shorten lengthy object names.
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym
FOR object;
248
Creating and Removing Synonyms
SQL> CREATE SYNONYM d_sum
2 FOR dept_sum_vu;
Synonym Created.
SQL> DROP SYNONYM d_sum;
Synonym dropped.
Create a shortened name for the DEPT_SUM_VU view.
Drop a synonym.
249
Summary
Automatically generate sequence numbers by using a
sequence generator.
View sequence information in the USER_SEQUENCES
data dictionary table.
Create indexes to improve query retrieval speed.
View index information in the USER_INDEXES
dictionary table.
Use synonyms to provide alternative names for
objects.
Review Questions
DCL Statements

252
Objectives
Create users
Create roles to ease setup and maintenance of the
security model
GRANT and REVOKE object privileges
253
Controlling User Access
Database
administrator
Users
Username and password
privileges
254
Privileges
Database security
System security
Data security
System privileges: Gain access to the database
Object privileges: Manipulate the content of the
database objects
Schema: Collection of objects, such as tables, views,
and sequences
255
System Privileges
More than 80 privileges are available.
The DBA has high-level system privileges.
Create new users
Remove users
Remove tables
Backup tables
256
Creating Users
The DBA creates users by using the CREATE USER
statement.
SQL> CREATE USER scott
2 IDENTIFIED BY tiger;
User created.
CREATE USER user
IDENTIFIED BY password;
257
User System Privileges
GRANT privilege [, privilege...]
TO user [, user...];
An application developer may have the following system
privileges:
CREATE SESSION
CREATE TABLE
CREATE SEQUENCE
CREATE VIEW
CREATE PROCEDURE
Once a user is created, the DBA can grant specific system
privileges to a user.
258
Granting System Privileges
The DBA can grant a user specific system privileges.
SQL> GRANT create table, create sequence, create view
2 TO scott;
Grant succeeded.
259
What Is a Role?
Allocating privileges
without a role
Allocating privileges
with a role
Privileges
Users
Manager
260
Creating and Granting Privileges to a Role
SQL> CREATE ROLE manager;
Role created.
SQL> GRANT create table, create view
2 to manager;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> GRANT manager to BLAKE, CLARK;
Grant succeeded.
261
Changing Your Password
When the user account is created, a password is initialized.
Users can change their password by using the ALTER USER
statement.
SQL> ALTER USER scott
2 IDENTIFIED BY lion;
User altered.
262
Object
Privilege Table View Sequence Procedure
ALTER
DELETE
EXECUTE
INDEX
INSERT
REFERENCES
SELECT
UPDATE
Object Privileges
263
Object Privileges
Object privileges vary from object to object.
An owner has all the privileges on the object.
An owner can give specific privileges on that owners object.
GRANT object_priv [(columns)]
ON object
TO {user|role|PUBLIC}
[WITH GRANT OPTION];
264
Granting Object Privileges
SQL> GRANT select
2 ON emp
3 TO sue, rich;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> GRANT update (dname, loc)
2 ON dept
3 TO scott, manager;
Grant succeeded.
Grant query privileges on the EMP table.
Grant privileges to update specific columns to users and roles.
265
Using WITH GRANT OPTION and PUBLIC Keywords
Allow all users on the system to query data from Alices DEPT table.
SQL> GRANT select, insert
2 ON dept
3 TO scott
4 WITH GRANT OPTION;
Grant succeeded.
SQL> GRANT select
2 ON alice.dept
3 TO PUBLIC;
Grant succeeded.
Give a user authority to pass along the privileges.
266
Confirming Privileges Granted
Data Dictionary Table Description
ROLE_SYS_PRIVS System privileges granted to roles
ROLE_TAB_PRIVS Table privileges granted to roles
USER_ROLE_PRIVS Roles accessible by the user
USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE Object privileges granted on the
user's objects
USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD Object privileges granted to the
user
USER_COL_PRIVS_MADE Object privileges granted on the
columns of the user's objects
USER_COL_PRIVS_RECD Object privileges granted to the
user on specific columns
267
How to Revoke Object Privileges
You use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges
granted to other users.
Privileges granted to others through the WITH
GRANT OPTION will also be revoked.
REVOKE {privilege [, privilege...]|ALL}
ON object
FROM {user[, user...]|role|PUBLIC}
[CASCADE CONSTRAINTS];
268
Revoking Object Privileges
As user Alice, revoke the SELECT and INSERT privileges
given to user Scott on the DEPT table.
SQL> REVOKE select, insert
2 ON dept
3 FROM scott;
Revoke succeeded.
269
Summary
CREATE USER Allows the DBA to create a user
GRANT Allows the user to give other users
privileges to access the user's
objects
CREATE ROLE Allows the DBA to create a collection
of privileges
ALTER USER Allows users to change their
password
REVOKE Removes privileges on an object from
users
Review Questions
Thank you