Gates and Circuits

Nell Dale & John Lewis

(adaptation by Erin
Chambers and Michael
Goldwasser)
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Computers and Electricity
A gate is a device that performs a basic
operation on electrical signals
Gates are combined into circuits to
perform more complicated tasks
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Gates
Lets examine the processing of the
following six types of gates
NOT
AND
OR
XOR
NAND
NOR
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Describing Gates and Circuits
There are three different, but equally
powerful, notational methods
for describing the behavior of gates
and circuits
Boolean expressions
logic diagrams
truth tables
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Describing Gates and Circuits
Boolean algebra: expressions in this
algebraic notation are an elegant and
powerful way to demonstrate the activity of
electrical circuits
Basic propositional statements are
unambiguously either True or False
Operations such as AND or NOT are then
performed on these values
A gate is simply a mechanical way to perform
such a boolean operation
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Describing Gates and Circuits
Logic diagram: a graphical
representation of a circuit
Each type of gate is represented by a specific
graphical symbol
Truth table: defines the function of a gate
by listing all possible input combinations
that the gate could encounter, and the
corresponding output
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NOT Gate
a NOT gate accepts one input value
and produces one output value
a NOT gate is sometimes referred to as an
inverter because it inverts the input value
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AND Gate
An AND gate accepts two input signals
If the two input values for an AND gate are
both 1, the output is 1; otherwise, the
output is 0
Figure 4.2 Various representations of an AND gate
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OR Gate
If the two input values are both 0, the
output value is 0; otherwise, the output is 1
Figure 4.3 Various representations of a OR gate
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XOR Gate
XOR, or exclusive OR, gate
An XOR gate produces 0 if its two inputs are
the same, and a 1 otherwise
Note the difference between the XOR gate
and the OR gate; they differ only in one
input situation
When both input signals are 1, the OR gate
produces a 1 and the XOR produces a 0
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XOR Gate
Figure 4.4 Various representations of an XOR gate
NAND and NOR Gates
The NAND and NOR gates are essentially the
opposite of the AND and OR gates, respectively
Figure 4.5 Various representations
of a NAND gate
Figure 4.6 Various representations
of a NOR gate
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Gates with More Inputs
Gates can be designed to accept three or more
input values
A three-input AND gate, for example, produces
an output of 1 only if all input values are 1
Figure 4.7 Various representations of a three-input AND gate
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Constructing Gates
A transistor is a device that acts, depending on
the voltage level of an input signal, either as a
wire that conducts electricity or as a resistor that
blocks the flow of electricity
A transistor has no moving parts, yet acts like
a switch
It is made of a semiconductor material, which is
neither a particularly good conductor of electricity,
such as copper, nor a particularly good insulator,
such as rubber
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jasonm:
Redo 4.8
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Constructing Gates
A transistor has three
terminals
A source
A base
An emitter, typically
connected to a ground wire
If the electrical signal is
grounded, it is allowed to
flow through an alternative
route to the ground (literally)
where it can do no harm
Figure 4.8 The connections of a transistor
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Constructing Gates
It turns out that, because the way a transistor
works, the easiest gates to create are the NOT,
NAND, and NOR gates
Figure 4.9 Constructing gates using transistors
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Circuits
Two general categories
In a combinational circuit, the input values explicitly
determine the output
In a sequential circuit, the output is a function of the
input values as well as the existing state of the circuit
As with gates, we can describe the operations
of entire circuits using three notations
Boolean expressions
logic diagrams
truth tables
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Combinational Circuits
Gates are combined into circuits by using the
output of one gate as the input for another
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Combinational Circuits
Because there are three inputs to this circuit, eight rows
are required to describe all possible input combinations
This same circuit using Boolean algebra:
(AB + AC)
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around table
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Now lets go the other way; lets take a
Boolean expression and draw
Consider the following Boolean expression: A(B + C)
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Redo table to
get white
space (p101)
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Now compare the final result column in this truth table to
the truth table for the previous example
They are identical
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Properties of Boolean Algebra
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Redo table
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Adders
At the digital logic level, addition is
performed in binary
Addition operations are carried out
by special circuits called, appropriately,
adders
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Adders
The result of adding
two binary digits could
produce a carry value
Recall that 1 + 1 = 10
in base two
A circuit that computes
the sum of two bits
and produces the
correct carry bit is
called a half adder
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Redo table
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Adders
Circuit diagram
representing
a half adder
Two Boolean
expressions:
sum = A B
carry = AB
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Adders
A circuit called a full adder takes the
carry-in value into account
Figure 4.10 A full adder
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Multiplexers
Multiplexer is a general circuit that
produces a single output signal
The output is equal to one of several input
signals to the circuit
The multiplexer selects which input signal is
used as an output signal based on the value
represented by a few more input signals,
called select signals or select control lines
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Multiplexers
The control lines
S0, S1, and S2
determine which
of eight other
input lines
(D0 through D7)
are routed to the
output (F)
Figure 4.11 A block diagram of a multiplexer with three
select control lines
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Circuits as Memory
Digital circuits can be used to store
information
These circuits form a sequential circuit,
because the output of the circuit is also
used as input to the circuit
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Circuits as Memory
An S-R latch stores a
single binary digit
(1 or 0)
There are several
ways an S-R latch
circuit could be
designed using
various kinds of gates
Figure 4.12 An S-R latch
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Circuits as Memory
The design of this circuit
guarantees that the two
outputs X and Y are always
complements of each other
The value of X at any point in
time is considered to be the
current state of the circuit
Therefore, if X is 1, the circuit
is storing a 1; if X is 0, the
circuit is storing a 0
Figure 4.12 An S-R latch
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Integrated Circuits
An integrated circuit (also called a chip)
is a piece of silicon on which multiple
gates have been embedded
These silicon pieces are mounted on a
plastic or ceramic package with pins along
the edges that can be soldered onto circuit
boards or inserted into appropriate sockets
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Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits (IC) are classified by the
number of gates contained in them
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Redo table
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Integrated Circuits
Figure 4.13 An SSI chip contains independent NAND gates
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CPU Chips
The most important integrated circuit
in any computer is the Central Processing
Unit, or CPU
Each CPU chip has a large number
of pins through which essentially all
communication in a computer system
occurs