By

Mian Waqas
Philosophy
Love for Wisdom
Past Questions
Philosophy & Its Nature/value

Define Philosophy and justifies its
value in modern times. PMS-2009

What benefits are to be achieved
from the study of Philosophy?
Discuss .CSS 2000

Philosophy






Greek Philosopher Pythagoras coined the term
Philosophy.

Definitions of Philosophy (from Different Angles)
It is a set of uncritically held attitudes (or
beliefs) about life and universe. (Having
Philosophy)
It is a process of reflection and criticism on our
deeply held attitudes (or beliefs). (Doing Philo)
It is a process of looking at world as a whole.
It is a process of analyzing language logically
and clarifying meaning (of words and ideas).
It is a group of perennial problems (or
questions) to be solved by philosophers.

Characteristics of Philosophical
Attitudes

Sense of Wonder
Doubt
Criticism
Reflections
Tolerance
Value of Philosophy
Philosophy is valuable b/c it Improves:
Both personal/social aspects of our Life
Analytical Skills (to describe abstract problems
better, to argue effectively, to use analysis and
strong arguments)
Vision & Insight: (Philosophy is helpful in
imagination, problem solving, looking at world
from different angles, decision making, shaping
our destiny).
Unexamined life is not worth living. (Socrates)

Transferable skills and personal characteristics
caused by philosophy are:
1. Reasoning skills: logic; analysis and synthesis;
handling of concepts; critical ability; identifying and
questioning assumptions; arguing a case; problem
solving and decision making
2. Handling symbolism: formal systems; statistical
arguments; computer literacy
3. Communication skills: clarity, relevance, and
succinctness in written and oral presentations
4. Comprehension: mastery of difficult and complex
texts; listening to what others say, and appreciating
different points of view; coping with a high level of
uncertainty
5. Depth and breadth of view: seeing beyond traditional
disciplinary boundaries; identifying first principles and
practical applications; tracing connections; objectivity
6. Reflexivity: handling of second-order questions;
awareness of one's own thinking and use of language;
ability to assess one's own strengths and weaknesses,
and those of others
7. Originality: independence of thought; flexibility of
approach; adaptability to a changing environment;
inventiveness in producing examples and counter-
examples
8. Cooperativeness: ability to work in teams in different
capacities; constructive contribution to group
discussion and joint products
9. Responsibility: ability to act autonomously and to
learn independently; awareness of ethical
implications.

Since western philosophy is based
on Greek Philosophy, hence an
overview of Greek Philosophy
is important.
Pre-Socratic (Naturalist/Materialist)
Philosophers
What is Ultimate Cause or Ultimate
Substance of which this universe
(everything) is based on?
Thats one the most basic questions
answered by Greek Philosophers
1. Ionian (Milesian) Philosophers
What is nature of Cosmic matter/ world-stuff?
They agree, it is One, but disagree to its type.
1. Thales/Father of Science/Founder of Philosophy
Ultimate substance/matter is Only Water.
2. Anaximander/ Originator of philosophical concept of God
Ultimate substance is infinity Or Apeiron which
is boundless, infinite corporeal mass (like divine).
3. Anaximenes
Ultimate substance is Air.

Thales: Ultimate stuff from which our
universe is originated is WATER.
Anaximander: Ultimate cause or stuff of our universe is
APEIRON( Unknown, limitless & boundless, primordial mass).
Anaximenes: Air is the source of this
Universe.

2. Pythagoreans
4. Pythagoras
Coined the term Philosophy.
Ultimate reality is Mathematical (Number).
Mathematics is the lord of universe.
There are Two Kinds of world (Dualism)
1. Mathematical world which is Perfect, Infinite, Original.
2. Physical world: imperfect, limited, Copies, shadows
The real essence of our material objects is mathematical
forms (numbers, formulas, formulas, calculations,
conceptions).
Everything is in accordance with a Number.
Pythagoreans: Ultimate reality is MATHEMATICAL.
(Numbers)

3. The Eleatic School
5. Xenophanes: He criticizes anthropomorphic
polytheism, & brings Monotheism/Pantheism
Supreme Being/God/World-stuff is one. Or World is
God, God is World.
6. Parmenides (Father of Materialism):Being/God/Ultimate
world-stuff is The One. (Ultimate reality is single entity)
(If a being is thinkable, it must exist. If a being is
unthinkable, it cant existnon-being). God is
thinkable, so He existsBeing).
Void/empty space cant exist (non-being). similarly
motion & plurality cant exist. No Change in the world.
Xenophanes:
Xenophanes rejects anthropomorphic (having man-
like qualities) gods.
Parmenides: Ultimate reality is One
Being. (unchanging & indestructible)


As Only one being is everywhere, so there is
no void, as there is no void, so there is no
movement to fill it. Every thing is constant and
unchangeable.
Zenos Paradoxes to prove his teacher Parmenides. Suppose YOU want to catch a
stationary bus. Before you can get there, you must cover halfway there. Before you
can cover halfway there, you must get a quarter of the way there. Before traveling
a quarter, you must travel one-eighth; before an eighth, one-sixteenth;. and so on.
So you can never catch the buss.
Eleatic School
7. Heraclitus, the Obscure (weeping philosopher)
Unlike Parmenides (who says there is no change, no motion in
the world), Heraclitus says everything is in change/motion/
becoming. You cant step twice into the same
river.
Fire is the Ultimate substance of this universe.

Everything is under Law/Reason/Logos.
So reason/natural law arranges meaningless
(disordered) things in orderly manner.


Heraclitus: Fire is ultimate Substance.
Everything is in Change.
You cant step twice into the same river Everything is compose of fire.
1. Pluralist/Atomists
Unlike One changeless being, World is made up of
many things.
1. Empedocles: Four elements (water/air/earth/fire)

2. Anaxagoras: Countless elements/seeds which are
moving under the law of reason.
Mind/Nous/reason gives direction/purpose to world.


Empedocles:
Four Elements (Water, Air, Fire, Earth)
are source of our universe
Life come into existence when these element
combine with each other through forces of Love.
Death is the scattering of these elements due forces
of hatred.
Anaxagoras: countless small seeds are source
of everything. They are determined by
omnipotent/omniscient reason (or Nous).
Life & Death depends upon
combination & scattering of
these seeds.
2. Pluralist/Atomists
3. Leucippus says universe is made up of many atoms.
Atoms are under systematic mathematical laws.
Nothing comes without any reason. Or everything
arises from something (reason/cause).
4. Democritus gives two-world concept.
Phenomena (sense-world):Imperfect/untrustworthy
Reality (rational-world): Ultimate/perfect/valid. It is
made up of invisible atoms (ideas/forms).
Ultimate reality is made up of numberless atoms
which can be understood by reason, not senses.

Democritus: Ultimate source of this
universe is ATOMS.
Leucippus and his
Student Democritus
also believed in
determinism. Every
thing is eternally pre-
determined.
3. Pluralists/Sophists
5. Protagoras gives perception theoryMan is
measure of all things. OR it means reality is
relative/subjective(changes person to person).
So there is no ultimate reality.
But only sense-world is real.
Our knowledge is always based on our personal senses.
6. Gorgias brings relativism of Protagoras to Nihilism
Nothing exists, second, if anything did exist, we could
never know.
So ultimate reality of previous philosophers was
extremely challenged by Sophists.
Protagoras: Man is the Measure of All Things
Now Summary of Greek Philosophy
Ionian (Milesian) Philosophers
Reality is One
(1) Thales
(Father of Western Philosophy)
World Is made up of
water.
(2) Anaximander
(father of Cosmology &
Astronomy)
Universe is composed of a
infinite, limitless Apeiron
(3) Anaximenes
World is originated from
air. Breath is soul.

Reality is One
(4) Pythagoras
(Father of Numbers)
World Is based on numbers.
Music is medicine of soul.
He believed in incarnation.
(5) Heraclitus
The Obscure
Everything is in flux.
You cant step twice into
same river.
World is based on fire.
(6) Parmenides &
his student Zeno
Reality of the world is
One Being unchanging,
indestructible.
Monism vs. Pluralism
Reality is One Reality is Many
Thales Water
Empedocles water/air/earth/fire
Anaximander Apern Anaxagoras Seeds/fragments
Anaximenes Air Democritus Atoms
Pythagoras Number

Heraclitus Fire

Parmenides same being

Zeno same One being

Idealism
1. Discuss Idealism & Its types. CSS 2010
Idealism
Idealism holds that ideas or thoughts
make up fundamental reality. Idealism
stresses that spirit or idea is the most
important and essential element of the
life and the universe.
1. The human spirit (idea/mind) is the most
fundamental element in life.
2. The universe is essentially not material in
its ultimate nature.
Types of Idealism
1. Subjective Idealism: Ideas are within mind.

2. Objective Idealism: Ideas are outside of mind

3. Transcendental Idealism: Ideas are beyond mind
(beyond space & time).

4. Absolute Idealism: Subjective and objective ideas
are part of absolute.

Major Idealists
Plato Objective Idealism
George Berkeley Subjective Idealism
Kant Transcendental Idealism
Hegel Absolute Idealism

Objective Idealism
(Platos Idealism)

CSSPakistan2013
Q What are Forms in Platos Philosophy? Why he needed
Forms?
CSM (Civil Service Main Exams)Inida2013, 2012 , 2011
Q. Explain Platos Ontological theory of Forms. Is Knowledge
one of the forms? Give reasons.
Q. How does Plato relates the world of ideas to empirical
world. Discuss.
Q. Platos Analogy of Cave and Its significance. comment
PMSPunjab2009
Q Expound and Critically Examine Platos Theory of
Knowledge?
Forms (in Platos philosophy)
Forms (or ideas/concepts) are, changeless, perfect,
eternal and nonmaterial patterns (essences) of
which actual visible objects of our world are
poor/imperfect copies.


Perfect form of horse
Imperfect Copies of Form of horse
Forms are:
1. Transcendent- They are beyond space and time
2. Pure They exemplify purely one property.
3. Archetypes - The forms are the perfect models
upon which all material objects are based.
4. Ultimately Real - The forms are the ultimately
real entities, not material objects.
5. Causes - The forms are the causes of all things.
6. Systematically Interconnected From higher to
lower; from more general to more particular, from
more objective to more subjective.
Form (Idea/essence/pattern) of Triangle
Form of Original Triangle
Imperfect copies of Orignal Triangles

Perfect idea of
Horse
Imperfect Copies of Idea of Horse
World is of two Kinds
World of Forms: Forms are of two kinds:
(1) Lower Forms (2) Higher Forms
Lower Forms depend upon higher forms
Physical world: (1) Images (2) Objects
Shadows depends upon objects for existence

Platos theory of Ideas or Forms
There is a transcendent world of
ideas which is superior to our physical
world (our physical objects are copies
of the that transcendent world).
This theory is an attempt to reconcile
theory of All-change and No-
Change.
Characteristics of Forms/Ideas
Ideas are substances
Ideas are general and universal
Ideas are immaterial objects
Ideas are like classes
Ideas are indestructible
Ideas are beyond space and times
Ideas are more perfect than particulars
Degrees of Ideas (Forms)
Some ideas are at higher position; some ideas are lower
(those which are very close to material objects); However,
Highest idea/form is GOOD (which is most spiritual/ideal.
Platonic Idealism (Platos Metaphysics)
Plato based his philosophy on the views of
Protagoras (relativity of perception/mere
appearance of phenomenal object), Parmenides
(True BeingOntos), Pythagoras (real essence or
Platonic idealOusia), Democritus (how we know
reality through senses/perception shows transient
reality), Heraclitus (everything/matter is in change)
1. Lower Reality (Material) which is known through senses
2. Higher Reality (Ideal)which is known through reason/intellect
He is rationalist (true knowledge through REASON), idealist
(ultimate reality is idea), realist (Idea is real).
Heraclitus Vs. Parmenides
All-Change Theory No-Change Theory
Reality is in
continuous Flux.

You can not step
twice in the same river.

Nothing is permanent
except change.
Reality is
Unchangeable.

Everything is a part
of unchangeable unity.

Change is apparent
and illusion.
Plato reconciles theory of Change and
Permanence.
He says there are two kinds of worlds:
one is changeable (material world) other
is permanent (world of ideas).
Dichotomy of Existence (of two worlds)
1. Sensuous World (Raining, table, Temp.)
2. Rational World (2+2=4, triangle)

Platos dichotomy of Existence
Sensuous World Vs. Rational World

Sensuous World
It is our material/physical
/practical world which is
changeable, temporal,
mutable, imperfect and
based on our senses and
perceptions.

world of senses(paticulars
individuals and examples)
Rational World
It is immaterial/ spiritual/
mental/theoretical/
transcendent world which is
perfect, unchangeable, non-
temporal, eternal,
immutable and immortal
and based on reason and
logic.
World of Ideas(universals,
generalizations, concepts)

Sensuous World
It is our material/physical
/practical world which is
changeable, temporal,
mutable, imperfect and
based on our senses and
perceptions.

world of senses
(particulars, merely copies,
shadows and individual
etc.)
Rational World
It is immaterial/spiritual/
theoretical/ transcendent
world which is perfect,
unchangeable, non-
temporal, eternal,
immutable and immortal
and based on reason and
logic.
World of Ideas
(originals, concepts
universals, and
generalizations etc.)


World of Senses and
Copies or Shadows of
idea of horse
World of Original Ideas
Perfect idea of Horse
Knowledge through senses is relative (b/c we have
different senses/sensory organs)
Knowledge through mind is objective/real/rational
We get essence/idea/forms/abstractions/concepts
from material objects by using our mind/reason.
Knowledge of mathematical forms/formulas and of
true Being/world-stuff is ideal and real.
Every physical object (such as Table, Tree) is copy
of idea (idea of table, idea of tree) which exists in
world of ideas (Platonic world).
Knowledge can be achieved through senses
(imperfect knowledge) n mind (real/perfect)
Knowledge is recollection of soul.
All knowledge is recollection of pre-existent life of
soul. Soul is storage of all truth n knowledge.
To find truth, go deep into your soul/unconscious
Soul after death of one body, soul migrates to other
body, born s again and again, so it is immortal.
So Plato believes in transmigration of Soul.

Sense-world comes into being from an
unformed/shapeless eternal matter (RECEPTACLE)
according to prescribed pattern of ideas by act of
God.
God does not create that matter but design it
according to pattern of eternal ideas.
So Plato adds 3
rd
type of world (RECEPTACLE) to
Phenomena (PHYSICAL) and reality (IDEAL world).
In short, God, Ideas, n Receptacle are ultimate.
Aristotle replaces Platos idealism with realism.
Why Plato needs forms?
He needs theory of forms to solve following problems:
1. The Ethical Problem: How can humans live a fulfilling,
happy life in a contingent, changing world where every
thing, they deal with, can be removed/changed?
2. The Problem of Permanence and Change: How can the
world appear to be both permanent and changing?
The world we perceive through the senses seems to
be always changing. The world that we perceive
through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be
permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and
why does it appear both ways?
Aristotle (Realist)
(Important only in PMS/Logic in CSS)

1. Discuss critically Aristotle's Metaphysics.
PMS2012
2. What is Logic? Evaluate in brief
Aristotelian Logic. CSS-2002,2006, 2008
3. Describe Aristotles View of Causation.
CSM (Civil Service (Main) Exams, 2009
Similarities between Plato & Aristotle
Both Plato & Aristotle believe in:
Objectivity (universality) of philosophy
Value of objective knowledge (or of ultimate
causes
Dist. b/w knowledge (eternal) &opinion (changing)
Distinction b/w knowledge and experience
Knowledge begins in wonder
Philosophy is the mother (highest) of All sciences
Philosophical method (dialectical method)
Plato Aristotle
1. Philosophy covers moral, practical,
theoretical aspects of knowledge

2. Philosophical discussion is
intellectual discourse

3. He used (analytic) dialectical
method

4. Ideas are separate from objects
5. He has less factual interest (but
more ideal one)

6. Being poet, he used myths,
imagination, poetry and mysticism

7. He used extraordinary poetic
language
1. Philosophy covers only theoretical aspect

2. Philosophy also deals with phenomena
(actual things and every day life)

3. He improved dialectical method by adding
method of observation to it. And he made
it scientific and technical method.

4. Ideas cannot be separated from things.

5. He wanted to get accurate scientific
knowledge.

6. Rather than style, he focused on meaning,
communication and understanding of
language.
7. He separate art and reason.
Dissimilarities between them
Q. Critically Discuss Aristotles Theory of
Knowledge? PMS2012
He covered not only philosophy, ethics, logic,
metaphysics, but also naturals sciences.

Logic:
Aristotle is founder father of traditional Logic.
Logic is science of reasoning. It is an ORGANON
(instrument) to achieve correct knowledge. It is
science of all sciences because it is a tool of
scientific research and thinking.

Subject Matter of Logic

Aristotles Logic
He says Logic studies thought
Thought means not process but product of
thought

1. Concept (Term)
2. Judgment (Proposition)
3. Inference (argument)
Concept
Property of mind
Picture of a thing in mind
A mental image
E.g., table, chair, pen, book
term
Concept when expressed in language is called

Categorematic: term by itself; man, table
Syncategorematic: not term by themselves;
the, an, all, only, of
Acategorematic: used in neither case, hurrah!,
Alas
Singular and general terms
Particular term, socrates, Ravi, Lahore

Universal terms, man, cricket, university
Judgment
Relationship of affirmation/negation b/w
two terms
Intellectual activity
Comparison/ evaluation of particular effects
of an experience
Psychological activity of awareness of objects
and relationships
Proposition
Judgment expressed in language
A statement that can be true or false is called
Witten or spoken statement in language
3 parts:
Subject
Predicate
copula
Proposition
A logical sentence.
It consists of 2 terms (subject & Predicate).
Subject and predicate are two class which are
related are linked through copula.
Example of Proposition:
Subject copula Predicate
All Men are Mortal.


Inference
Combination of more than 1 propositions
Mental activity
Where some propositions are given (premises) ,
and other follows from them (conclusion).

All men are mortal and Socrates is a man. (Given)
Therefore, All men are mortal. (following)
Inference
A inference or reasoning is a process of transition
from known/perceived facts (Premises) to
unknown or unperceived things.

You see smoke and infer/ reason that there is a
fire.
Argument

Categorical Syllogism
Syllogism: a deductive argument consisting of
two (2) premises and one (1) conclusion is called
Syllogism.
Categorical Syllogism: A syllogism with three (3)
propositions & three (3) different terms (Major,
Minor & Middle).
Each of these terms appears twice.
All Men are Mortal
Aslam is a man
Therefore, Aslam is mortal
Major Term, Minor term & Middle Term

1. All CSPs are intelligent. Major Premise
2. Some people are not CSPs. Minor Premise
3. Some People are not intelligent. Conclusion

Minor Term Major Term
Middle Term
Categories
His categories are part of his metaphysics.
Categories are fundamental concepts and basic
features of reality because without categories our
thought is impossible.
1. Substance: a thing what it is (e.g. Man)
2. Quality: how a thing is constituted (e.g. white)
3. Quantity: how large a thing is (e.g. 2 yards long)
4. Relation: how it is related (e.g. greater)
5. Space: where it is (e.g. in the Lyceum)
6. Time: when it is (e.g. yesterday)
7. Position: What postures it assume (e.g. lies, sits)
8. State: the condition it is in (e.g. armed)
9. Activity: what it does (e.g. burns)
10.Passivity: what is suffers (e.g. is burned)


Criticism
Aristotles Categories are criticized by stoics
(happiness can be achieved by accepting pain),
Neo-Platonists (who combine Platonism with
mysticism), Plotinus, Kant, Hegel, J.S. Mill. They
hold that classification of categories is only based
on linguistic expediency.
He gives no arguments to prove these categories.

Q. Critically discuss Aristotles metaphysics.
(Theory of form & Matter)
Study of the nature of being or substance is
called metaphysics.
For Plato: substance is Abstract (universal).
For Aristotle: substance is concrete individual
(particular)
Note:
Abstract: to remove something from something else; When we remove a leave from a tree
(which is context of that leave), then this leave is called abstract. Similarly if we separate idea
from the object, then this separate idea is called abstract.
Concrete: to grow together; when we see a leave by placing the leave within the context or
relation of the tree, then this relational or contextual leave is called concrete. When we see an
idea in relation or context to its object, then this idea is called concrete.
Aristotles Criticism on Platos Theory
of Ideas
Abstract ideas cant cause concrete things
Ideas are static & eternal so cant explain
motion & change.
Ideas cannot explain particular things
Ideas are re-duplications of things
things are copies of ideas explains nothing
Plato separates essence from thing itself,
which is actually not possible.
Form & Matter
Matter: Something of which a thing is made.
Form: which someone imposes on matter.
To understand it, his theory of causation is imp. b/c
concepts of matter and its cause are interlinked.
To explain, we need to know why & How an
event occur.
Four types of Causes
(1) Material (2) Efficient (3) Forma (4) Final
So a thing has two aspects (Material & Formal).
Matter and form are inseparable. An object cant
exists without both form and matter.


Form (cubeness) is universal, matter
(sugar cube) is particular. Both are
arranged in ascending order as
Substances with max. matter & min.
form are arranged at bottom; those
with equal matter & form are at
intermediate level; God (pure form,
without any matter) is at top who sets
the world in motion.

Features of God (Pure Form)
God is Prime mover
God is apex of world process
(highest manifestation
God is formal cause of the world
God is Efficient cause of the world
God is Final cause of the world
Q. State & examine Aristotles theory
of causation.
Four causes: Example of Table

1. Material Cause: (matter such as wood)
2. Efficient Cause (for change/movement, Carpenter)
3. Formal Cause (Idea/form of Table)
4. Final Cause (Purpose to be achieved)
Goodbye
Mian Waqas Haider
For Lecture Notes Or Classes:
Mian Waqas (M.Phil in Philosophy)
Address: G.C. University, Lahore
(0345-4740019)

[email protected]
For further guidance , Dont hesitate to contact.
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Next Topics
Critical Analysis of:

1. Subjective Idealism by Berkeley
2. Transcendental Idealism by Kant
(German idealism by Schelling, Fichte & Hegel)
3. Absolute/Dialectical Idealism by Hegel