ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:

A Global Concern, 5th edition

William P. Cunningham
University of Minnesota
Barbara Woodworth Saigo
Saiwood Biology Resources
CHAPTER 1

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
AND ECOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES

What is Environmental Science?

Environment
Environmental Science
History of Environmental Science
utilitarian conservation
altruistic preservation
CURRENT CONDITIONS
Planet Earth
Environmental Dilemmas
population
food shortages
energy
pollution
A DIVIDED WORLD
Rich vs. Poor
North vs. South
Developed countries vs. undeveloped
countries
First, Second, Third and Fourth World
Countries
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human Development Index
Developmental Discrepancies
basic social services
education
health care
agrarian reform
employment
civil rights
sustainable resource use
Sustainable Development
ENVIRONMENTAL
PERSPECTIVES
Neo-Malthusian
Technological optimists/Promethean
environmentalism
Cornucopian Fallacy
Lessons from the Past
CHAPTER 2


TOOLS FOR BUILDING A
BETTER WORLD

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
Universal Ethical Principles
Relativists
Nihilists
Utilitarians
Modernism & Postmodernism
Values, Rights & Obligations
Morals
Animal Rights
Inherent Value
Instrumental Value
Worldviews and Ethical
Perspectives
Domination
Stewardship
Biocentrism
Ecofeminism

Environmental Justice
Environmental racism
Toxic colonialism
Is Nature fragile or resilient?
Science as a Way of Knowing
Scientific Method
Hypotheses Testing
Indirect Scientific Evidence
Technology and Progress
Appropriate Technology


CHAPTER 3

MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE

From Atoms to Cells

Atoms
ions
atomic number
Molecules
compound
Organic Compounds
carbon
Cells
Energy Types and Qualities

Kinetic Energy
heat
temperature
Potential Energy
Chemical Energy
Conservation of Matter
Thermodynamics
1st law
2nd law
Energy for Life

Solar Energy

Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
cellular respiration

From Species to Ecosystems
Population
Communities
biological community
Ecosystems
Food Chains
Productivity/biomass
Food chain/food web
Trophic level
producers
consumers
Organisms
herbivores
carnivores
omnivores

Material Cycles and Life Processes
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Sulfur Cycle

CHAPTER 4

BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
AND SPECIES INTERACTION

Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?
Temperature
Moisture levels
Nutrient supply
Soil chemistry
Water chemistry


Natural Selection

Adaptation

Evolution

HABITAT
SPECIES
INTERACTIONS AND
COMMUNITY
DYNAMICS
Predation

Predators
parasites
Pathogens
Prey


Competition

Intraspecific competition
Interspecific competition

Territoriality
Symbiosis
Commensalism
Mutualism
Community Properties

Productivity
Abundance and Diversity
Complexity and Connectedness
Resilience and Stability
Structure
Edges and Boundaries
Ecological Succession

Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Pioneer Species
Ecological Development
Climax Community

Introduced Species and Community Change
CHAPTER 5

BIOMES, LANDSCAPES,
RESOTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT

Terrestrial Biomes

Deserts
Grasslands
Prairies
Savannas
Tundra
Conifer Forests
Evergreen Forests
Tropical Forests
Tropical Seasonal Forests



Aquatic Ecosystems
Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems
Estuaries and Wetlands
Shorelines and Barrier Islands
Coral reefs

Landscape Ecology

Patchiness & Heterogeneity
Landscape Dynamics
Restoration Ecology

Rehabilitation
Remediation
Reclamation
Re-creation
Nature, self-healing
CHAPTER 6

POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population Growth

Exponential Growth
Geometric Growth
Arithmetic Growth
J Curve

Population Oscillations and
Irruptive Growth

Dieback
Overshoot
Irruptive or Malthusian growth
Growth to a Stable Population
Logistic growth
Environmental resistance
Strategies of Population Growth

Malthusian Strategies
Logistic Strategies
Factors affecting Population

Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility
Immigration
Mortality and survivorship
Age Structure
Emigration
Education
Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates

Education/affluence
Importance of children to family labor force
Urbanization
Cost - raising and educating children
Education & Employment opportunity - women
Infant mortality rate
Average marriage age
Availability - pension
Birth control
Religious beliefs, tradition and culture
Factors Affecting Death Rate

Nutrition
Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity
Health and technology

Teen Pregnancy in the USA
Migration
Immigration
Population Age Structure

Ways of classifying
Pre-reproductive age
Reproductive age
Post-reproductive age
Solutions Influencing Population

Controlling Migration
Reducing Birth Rates
Economic development
Family planning
Economic rewards
Empowering women
Population Control Studies
India
China
Population Distribution

Urbanization and Growth
The future is urban
Hyper-urbanization - LDCs
The United States and other MDCs
Spatial patterns of development
CHAPTER 7

HUMAN POPULATIONS

Population Growth

Birth Rates
Over-population
Technology and Ingenuity
Limits to Population Growth

Malthusian checks
Karl Marx
Neo-Malthusian
Technology solutions?
Can More people be Beneficial?
Human Demography

Fertility
Birthrate
Zero population growth
Mortality and death rates
Population growth rates
Life span and life expectancy
dependency ratio
Emigration and Immigration
Population Growth: Opposition
Pronatalist/Social Pressures
Birth Reduction Pressures
Education
Birth control
Economics
Demographic Transition

Improved living conditions
Development and Population
Optimistic View
Pessimistic View
Social Justice View
Ecojustice View
Infant Mortality
Womens Rights
Family Planning & Fertility Control

Birth Control
Celibacy
Mechanical barriers
Surgery
Chemicals
Implantation of physical controls
Abortion
CHAPTER 8

ECOLOGICAL
ECONOMICS

Classical Economics

Diminished Returns
Demand
Supply
Market Equilibrium
Marginal Costs
Price Elasticity
Neoclassical Economics
Karl Marx
E. F. Schumacher
Ecological Economics
steady-state economy
Resources, Capital and Reserves

Resource Types
Capital
Resource
Nonrenewable resources
Renewable resources
Intangible resources
Economic Resource Categories

Proven resources
Known resources
Undiscovered resources
Recoverable resources
Population, Technology, and Scarcity

Market Efficiencies
Increasing Environmental Carrying
Capacity
Economic Models
Why Not Conserve Resources?
Natural Resource Accounting

Gross National Product (GNP)
Human Development Index (HDI)
Non-market Values
Cost/Benefit Ratios
Green Business
Jobs and the Environment

Sustainability


Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 9

ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH AND
TOXICOLOGY

Health Hazards


Infectious Diseases
Respiratory diseases
pneumonia
tuberculosis
influenza
whooping cough


Malaria
Parasitic Mematodes
Schistosomiasis
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Trachoma
STDs
Toxic Chemicals


Irritants
Respiratory fibrotic agents
Asphyxiants
Allergens
Neurotoxins
Mutagens
Teratogens
Carcinogens
Natural and Synthetic Toxin
Physical Agents
radiation
Trauma
stress
Diet
Chemical Hazards and Toxicology

Dose and response
LD5O factor
Acute effect
Chronic effect
Types
toxic substances
hazardous
carcinogens
mutagens
teratogens
Movement, Distribution and
Fate of Toxins

Solubility
Bioaccumulation
Biomagnification
Persistence
Chemical Interactions
Minimizing Toxic Effects


Metabolic Degradation
Excretion
Repair Mechanisms
Measuring Toxicity


Animal Testing
Toxicity Ratings
Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects
Detection Limits
Assessment


Risks

Acceptable risks??
Risk Analysis

Identifying Risks
The Greatest Risks
Problems - Risk Assessment
Risk-Benefit Analysis
Managing Risks
CHAPTER 10

FOOD, HUNGER AND
NUTRITION



Human Nutrition


Energy Needs
undernourishment
over-nourishment
Nutritional Needs
proteins
carbohydrates
lipids and oils
minerals
vitamins
World Food Resoureces


Major Crops
wheat
rice
corn
potatoes
Meat and Milk
Croplands
Increasing Food Production

Green Revolution
Technology
Genetic Engineering
Increased Farm Output
New Food Sources
Blue Revolution
Aqua-culture
Agricultural Economics


Food Supplies
Food Subsidies
Agricultural Aid
International Food Trade
Cash Crops
World Hunger
Famines
Food Shortages

CHAPTER 11

SOIL RESOURECES
AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE

What is soil?
Soil, a renewable resource
Soil composition
humus
Soil organisms
Soil profiles
top soil
sub-soil
parent material
bedrock

Use and Abuse of Soil


Land Resources

Land Degradation
Erosion


Types of erosion
sheet erosion
rill erosion
gully erosion
streambank erosion
Erosion in the United States
Erosion in other countries
Agricultural Resources


Water
Fertilizer
Climate
Energy
Crop Diversity
Soil Conservation


Managing Topography
contour plowing
strip-farming
tied ridges
terracing
Providing Ground Cover
cover crops
mulch
Reduced Tillage Systems
CHAPTER 12


PEST CONTROL

What are Pest and Pesticides?

Biological Pests
Insects
Large animals
Botanical Pests
Weeds
Pesticides
Insecticides
Herbicides
Fungicides
Pest Controls


Early Controls
Botanical
Chemical
Modern Controls
Synthetic chemicals
DDT
Pesticide Types


Inorganic pesticides
Natural organic pesticides
botanicals
Fumigants
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Organophosphates
Carbamates
Microbial agents
Pesticide Benefits


Disease control
Crop protection
Increased crop production
Pesticide Problems


Effects on Nontarget Species
Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence
Creation of New Pests
Persistence and Mobility in the
Environment
Human Health Problems
Alternative Pesticide Uses
Crop rotation
Biological controls
predatory insects
pathogens
Herbivorous insects
Genetic and bioengineering

Reducing Pesticide Exposure

Regulation
EPA
USDA
Personal Safety
CHAPTER 13


BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity and Species Concept

What is Biodiversity?
What are species?
Number of species
Benefits of Biodiversity


Food
Drugs
Medicine
Ecological Benefits
Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction
Natural Causes
Mass Extinction
Human-Caused Reductions in
Biodiversity
Habitat Destruction
Hunting and Fishing
Commercial products and Live Specimens
Predator and Pest Control
Exotic Species Introductions
Disease
Pollution
Genetic Assimilation
Biodiversity Protection
Hunting and Fishing Laws
Endangered Species Act
Recovery Plans
Private Land and Critical Habitat
Minimum Viable Populations
Habitat Protection
International Wildlife Treaties
Zoos
Botanical Gardens
Captive Breeding Programs

CHAPTER 14

LAND USE: FORESTS AND
RANGELANDS

World Land Use


Forest, 30%
Range and pasture, 26%
Cropland, 1%
Other, 33
tundra
desert
wetlands
urban areas
World Forests


Forest Distribution
Closed canopy
Open canopy
Woodland
Forest Products


Industrial Timber
Fuelwood
Tropical Forests


Diminishing Forests
Swidden Agriculture
Logging and Land Invasions
Forest Protection
Reforestation
Debt-for-Nature Swaps
Temperate Forests


Ancient forest/old growth forests
Wilderness Protection
Wildlife Protection
Harvesting old growth forests
clear-cutting
strip-cutting
selective-cutting
Fire Management




Rangelands


Range Management
Overgrazing and Land
Degradation
desertification
Forage Conversion
Harvesting Wild Animals
Rangelands in the U.S.


Bureau of Land Management
State of the Range
feral animals
Grazing Fees
Land Ownership


Who owns what?

Land Reform

Indigenous Lands
CHAPTER 15

PRESERVING NATURE

Parks and Nature Preserves

Origins and History
Natural Landscaping

North American Parks
Existing Systems
U.S. National Park System
Park Problems
Over crowding
Roads
Commercialism
Pollution
Wildlife
New Directions
New Parks
World Parks and Preserves

Biosphere Reserves
Protecting Natural Heritage
Size and Design of Nature Preserves
recreation areas
historic areas
conservation areas
pristine research areas
Conservation and Economic Development
Indigenous Communities
Wilderness Areas


Wildlife Refuges
Refuge Management
International Wildlife Preserves
poaching
Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal
Regions

Wetland Values
Wetland Destruction
Floods and Flood Control
Floodplains
Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries
CHAPTER 16

EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL
RESOURCES

Earth, A Dynamic Sphere
Earths Layers
Crust
Mantle
Outer Core
Inner Core
Tectonic Processes
Tectonic Plates
Magma
Shifting Continents

Rock Types & How They Formed


Igneous Rock
Weathering
Sedimentation
Sedimentary Rock
Biogenic Sedimentation
Metamorphic Rock
Mineralogy


Metals
Nonmetal Minerals
Strategic Minerals
Environmental Effects of Resource
Extraction

Mining
tunneling
water leakage
strip mining
Processing
water pollution
chemical emissions
Conserving Mineral Resources

Recycling
Aluminum & Platinum
Steel & Iron

Substituting New Materials for Old Ones
Geologic Hazards


Earthquakes
Tsunami
Volcanoes
Floods
CHAPTER 17

AIR, CLIMATE, AND
WEATHER

The Atmosphere,
Composition & Structure

Gas Mixture
Layered Envelope
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Weather Engine


Solar Radiation/ Heat
Albedo (reflectivity)
Greenhouse effect
Convection Currents
Water vapor
Weather


Energy Balance in the Atmosphere
Convection Cells
Prevailing Winds
Jet Streams
Frontal Weather
cold and warm fronts
Cyclonic Storms
hurricanes and tornadoes
Seasonal Winds
monsoon
Weather Modification
Climate


Climatic Catastrophes
Ice Ages
Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic
Changes
Milankovitch Cycles
El Nio
Human-caused Global
Climate Change

Greenhouse Gases
Carbon Dioxide
Aerosols
Sources
Burning Fossil Fuels
Industrial Processes
Deforestation
Agriculture

Effects of Climate Change

Temperature Changes
Impact on Plants and Animals
Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines
Melting Ice Packs
Possible Increase of Disease
Cutting Emissions


United Nations Earth Summit
Kyoto Protocol
Developed Nations
Developing Nations
CHAPTER 18

AIR POLLUTION

Natural Sources of Air Pollution

Volcanoes
Emissions from vegetation
Human-Caused Air Pollution
Primary pollutants
Secondary pollutants
Fugitive emissions
Conventional or Criteria
Pollutants

Sulfur compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
Carbon Oxides
Metals and Halogens
Particulate Materials
Volatile Organic Compounds
Photochemical Oxidants
Unconventional Pollutants

Emissions & emissions standards
Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants
Aesthetic degradation
Indoor air Pollution
smoke
Climate, Topography, &
Atmospheric Processes

Inversions
Dust Domes and Heat Islands
Long Range Transport
Stratospheric Ozone
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Effects of Air Pollution


Human Health
bronchitis
emphysema
Plant Pathology
Acid Deposition
pH and atmospheric acidity
aquatic effects
forest damage
buildings and monuments
visibility reduction
Air Pollution Control


Moving Pollution to Remote Areas
Particulate Removal
filters
Sulfur Removal
fuel switching and fuel cleaning
limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion
flue gas desulfurization
sulfur recovery processes
Nitrogen Oxide Control
Hydrocarbon Controls
Clean Air Legislation

Clean Air Act of 1963
Amendments of 1970
Amendments of 1990
Acid rain
Urban smog
Toxic air pollutants
Ozone protection
Marketing pollution rights
Toxic organic compounds
EPA
CHAPTER 19

WATER USE AND
MANAGEMENT

Water Resources

Hydrologic Cycle
Evaporation/Sublimation
Saturation Point
Relative humidity
Condensation
Dew Point
Rainfall & Topography
Rain Shadow
Desert Belts
Balancing the Water Budget
Major Water Compartments

Oceans
Glaciers, Ice, & Snow
Ground Water
infiltration
water table
aquifers
Rivers and Streams
Lakes and Ponds
Wetlands
The Atmosphere
Water Availability and Use

Water Supplies
Drought Cycles
Types of Water Use
Withdrawal
Consumption
Degradation
Quantities of Water Use
Use by Sector
Freshwater Shortages


A Scarce Resource
Depleting Groundwater
subsidence
sinkholes
Increasing Water Supplies

Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs
Desalination
Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts
Environmental Costs
Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation
Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers


Water Management & Conservation

Watershed Management
Domestic Conservation
Industrial and Agricultural Conservation
Price Mechanisms
CHAPTER 20


WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution

Point Sources
Non-point Sources
Atmospheric Deposition
Types and Effects of
Water Pollution

Infectious Agents
Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication
Toxic Inorganic Materials
Heavy Metals
Nonmetallic Salts
Acids and Bases
Organic Chemicals
Sediments
Thermal Pollution

Water Quality Today

Surface Water in the U.S. &
Canada
Surface Water in other Countries
Groundwater and Drinking Water
Supplies
Ocean Pollution
Water Pollution Control

Source Reduction
Non-point Sources and Land Management
Agriculture
Urban runoff
Construction sites
Land disposal
Human Waste Disposal
Natural Processes
Municipal Sewage Treatment
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment
Low-Cost Waste Treatment
effluent sewerage
Water Legislation

Clean Water Act
Clean Water Act Reauthorization
Other Important Water Legislation
Safe Drinking Water Act
Superfund
Great lakes Water Quality Agreement
CHAPTER 21


CONVENTIONAL
ENERGY

Energy


A Brief History
Current Energy Sources
Fossil fuels
Nuclear power
Hydroelectric
Solar
Per Capita Consumption
Energy Use

Coal


Coal Resources and Reserves
Mining
Air Pollution
Oil


Oil Resources and Reserves
Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies
Oil Shales and Tar Sands
Natural Gas

Natural Gas Resources and Reserves
Unconventional Gas Sources
Methane hydrate
Nuclear Power

Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?
Types of Reactors
Alternative Reactor Designs
Breeder Reactors
Radioactive Waste Management

Ocean Dumping
Land Disposal
high-level waste repository
monitored, retrievable storage
Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants
Changing Fortunes of Nuclear
Power

Changing Public Opinion
Nuclear Fusion
Magnetic confinement
Inertial confinement
CHAPTER 22


SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY

Conservation


Utilization Efficiencies
Energy Conversion Efficiencies
net energy yield
Negawatt programs
Co-generation
Tapping Solar Energy

A Vast Resource
Passive Solar Heat
Active Solar Heat
Eutectic Chemicals
High-Temperature Solar Energy

Solar Cookers
Promoting Renewable Energy
Photovaltaic Solar Energy
Photovoltaic Cells
Storing Electrical Energy
Energy from Biomass

Burning Biomass
Fuelwood crisis in LDCs
Dung and Methane as Fuels
Alcohol from Biomass
gasohol
Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat
Energy from the Earths Forces

Hydropower
Dams and Hydro Generators
Wind Energy
Wind Farms
Geothermal Energy
Tidal and Wave Energy
Tidal Stations
Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion
CHAPTER 23


SOLID, TOXIC AND
HAZARDOUS WASTE

Solid Waste

Waste Stream
Paper, 38%
Yard waste, 17%
Metals, 8%
Plastics, 8%
Glass, 7%
Food, 7%
Miscellaneous, 14%

Waste Disposal Methods


Open Dumps
Ocean Dumpings
Landfills
Export Waste
Incineration and Resource Recovery
Types of incinerators
refuse-derived fuel
mass burn
Incinerator Cost and Safety
Reducing the Waste Stream

Recycling
Composting
Energy from Waste
Reuse
Producing Less Waste
Photodegradable plastics
Biodegradable plastics
Hazardous and Toxic Wastes

Hazardous Waste Disposal
Superfund
Hazardous Waste Management
Produce Less Waste
Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
Physical treatments
Chemical treatments
Bioremediation
Store Permanently
Retrievable Storage
Secure Landfills
CHAPTER 24


URBANIZATION AND
SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Urbanization


What is a city?
Rural area
Urban area
Village
City
Megacity
Core region
World Urbanization
Causes of Urban Growth


Immigration Push Factors
Immigration Pull Factors
Government Policies
Urban Problems


The Developing World
Traffic and Congestion
Air Pollution
Sewer Systems and Water Pollution
Housing
Slums
Shantytowns
Squatter Towns

The Developed World
Urban Problems
Urban Renewal
Noise
Transportation and City Growth

Transportation methods
horse & buggy
automobiles
Roads/freeways

City Planning


History
Garden Cities and New Towns
Cities of the Future
technopolis
Urban Redesign
Design for Open space
conservation
Urban Redesign
Limit size
Development areas
Shopping malls into city centers
Convenience for shopping and services
Job location
Exercise areas
Diverse housing
Superblocks
Self-sustainable food and waste centers
Public participation
CHAPTER 25

WHAT THEN SHALL WE
DO?

Environmental Education

Environmental Literacy
Environmental Careers
Individual Accountability

Shopping for Green Products
precycling
Non toxic products
recyclable products
natural products
Environmentally friendly products
Blue Angels and Green Seals
Limits of Green Consumerism
Paying Attention to Whats Important
Collective Actions


Student Environmental Groups
Mainline Environmental Organizations
Broadening the Environmental Agenda
Deep or Shallow Environmentalism
Radical Environmental Groups
Anti-environmental Backlash

Global Issues


Public Opinions and Environmental
Protection
Post materialist values
Sustainable Development
International Nongovernmental
Organizations

Green Government and Politics

Green Politics
Green Parties
Green Plans
National Legislation
Courts
Executive Branch
Environmental Impact Statements
International Environmental Treaties and
Conventions