Work study is the study of human work in all

aspects in order to increase the effectiveness

with which the work is done.
Work study is a term used to embrace the
techniques of method study and work
measurement which are employed to ensure
the best possible use of human and other
resources.
Work study embraces two different techniques
viz, method study and work measurements.

Work study = Method study + work measurement

METHOD STUDY:
Is the systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of
doing work, as a means of developing and
applying easier and more effective methods and
reducing costs.
Is the application of techniques designed to
establish the time for a qualified worker to
carry out a specified job at a defined level of
performance.

Method study develops an improved method
Work measurement is used to find the time
allowed to complete the job by that
procedure
To find the most economical way of doing
work
To simplify and standardize the methods,
materials, tools and equipment
To determine the time required by a qualified
worker to perform the work at a normal pace
To plan the training programmes for the
workers for the new methods
It is a direct means of raising productivity
It helps to increase the productive efficiency
of an operative unit without much capital
expenditure
It helps to eliminate/reduce waste (capital,
material, labour) and to make better use of
resources
It helps for establishing standards of
performance on which effective production
planning and control
It provides a scientific basis for work
improvement through work simplification
It provides a better workspace layout and
work environment
It provides better quality of product to the
consumer at a reasonable cost
It provides a concept of fair days work to the
workers, thus they can protect themselves
from the overload
It provides a basis for negotiations between
trade union leaders and the management.
1.Select- Job or process to be studied
2.Record All the details concerning job
using various recording techniques
3. Examine Recorded facts critically by
asking questions like who, what, when,
why
4. Develop Most economical method
5. Measure The amount of work
involved and set standard time to do that
job

6. Define New method and standard time
7. Install The new method as a standard
practice
8. Maintain New agreed standard practice by
proper control procedures
Method study is the systematic recording and
critical examination of existing and proposed
way of doing work, as a means of developing
and applying easier and more effective
methods and reducing costs.
Method study is also known as method
engineering, method analysis or work
improvement.
1.To improve the processes and procedures
2. To improve the design of plant and
equipment
3. To improve the plant layout
4. To improve the use of men, material and
machines
5. To achieve efficient material handling
6. To improve the flow of production and
processes
7.To achieve economy in human effort and
the reduction of unnecessary fatigue
8. To standardise methods
9. To improve the safety standards
10. To develop a better physical working
conditions
1.SELECT the work to be studied
2.RECORD all the relevant factors about the
present method by direct observation
3.EXAMINE these facts critically in the order of
sequence using the questioning techniques
4.DEVELOP the most practical , economical and
effective method considering all circumstances
5.EVALUATE- different alternatives to
developing a new improved method, comparing
the costs and efficiencies of these methods with
the current method.
6.DEFINE- The new method (improved method)
so that it can always be identified
7.INSTALL the method as standard practice
8.MAINTAIN that standard practice by
regular routine checks
1.Bottlenecks which are holding up other
production operation
2.Operations involving excessive manpower
3. Excessive movement of the materials
4. Operations involving repetitive work
5. Operations producing lot of scrap or defects
6. Operations having poor utilization of
resources
Three factors
1. Economic consideration- the cost of the study, loss of
time due to the investigation.

2.Technical consideration Adequate knowledge is
available to carry out the study successfully

3.Human reactions All the concerned persons such as
workers, supervisors, trade unions, management etc.
should support the improvements to be done.

It should be readily accepted by the workers, if the subject
selected for method study can improve the working
conditions, reduce the effort and fatigue of the workers.



To record all relevant facts pertaining to the
existing method

The record to be clear and concise (short)

Usual technique is writing, For complicated
procedures this method is not suitable.(Various
recording techniques are developed)

Most commonly used recording techniques are
charts and diagrams

1. Outline Process Charts- Gives overall outline
of the process and records principal operations
and inspections
2. Flow Process Chart-
(a) Man type Records Sequence of activities
performed by worker
(b) Material type - Records Sequence of activities
performed on materials
(c) Equipment type - Records Sequence of
activities performed by equipment
3. Two Handed Process Chart-Records activities
performed by workers two hands
4. Multiple Activity Chart- Records activities of
men and/or machines on a common time scale


5. Simo Chart- Records activities of workers
hands, legs, and other body movements on
common time scale
6. Flow Diagrams- Record path of movement
of men and materials
7. String Diagrams -Record path of
movement of men and materials
8. Cycle graph Used for high speed short
cycle operations
9. Chronocycle graph -Used for high speed
short cycle operations
10.Travel Chart Records movement of
materials and/or men between departments

Examination -is the means by which each
activity is subjected to a systematic and
progressive series of questions.
Critical examination is achieved by means of
two sets of detailed questions.
(i) Primary Questions: indicates the facts and
the reasons underlying them.
In the first stage of questioning technique,
the purpose, place, sequence, person, means
of every activity recorded is systematically
queried and a reason for each reply is sought.
(ii) Secondary questions: (Further query for
improving the existing method)
indicate the alternative and as a result of
improvement.
In this technique, the answers to the primary
questions are subjected to further query to
determine whether possible alternatives of
place, sequence, persons and/or means are
practicable and preferable as a means of
improvement upon the existing method.
Purpose (Eliminate unnecessary part of job)
What is actually done?
Is the activity really necessary?
Place
Where is it done?
Why at that place?
Sequence (Combine or rearrange the sequence
for more effective results)
When it is done?
Why in that sequence?

Person
Who does it?
Why that person?
Means (Simplify the operation)
How is it being done?
Why that way?
Purpose
What should be done?
What else might be done?
Place
Where else it could be done?
Where should it be done?
Sequence
When might it be done?
Person
Who else could do it?
Who should do it?
Means
How else could it be done?
How should it be done?
After the(Examination) questions have been
answered, it is the job of the method study
man to put the improvements in practice.
Record of all the relevant informations
regarding the proposed method is made on a
flow process chart so as to make a
comparison with the original method.
Saving can be expected in terms of money
and distance travelled by man and materials
during various stages in proposed method.
The technique specially designed for
improving work method is called the process
improvement formula. Four steps of the
formula are
1.Eliminate all unnecessary operations
2.Combine two or more operations and
elements
3.Sequence the various activities properly
4.Simplify the necessary operations
The revised method be described fully and in
a systematic manner.
In this step, complete instruction sheet for
the new method should be prepared.
Instruction sheet also known as written
standard practice, should cover all details of
the proposed method such as the process or
procedure, layout, equipment, materials,
quality, instructions, working conditions etc
It records the improved method for future
reference with all possible details
It can be used to communicate the proposed
method to the management for its approval
It can be used to communicate to those
concerned people( like foreman and workers)
with its implementation
It is an aid to training workers
It forms the basis on which time studies may
be taken for setting standards
Get the proposed method accepted by all the
supervisors, workers, and management
Refrain the workers about the new methods
and operations to be implemented
Train the supervisors and workers to work
according to the new method
Handle carefully the problem of
displacement/retrenchment of workers.
Minimize the hardship or inconvenience to all
concerned.
It should be maintained in its specified form and
is not allowed to slip back to old form or
introduction of any other unauthorized changes.
Measures to ensure the method developed is
implemented:
1. Adopting various monitoring methods
2. Data collection and interpretation (analysis)
3. Introducing various controlling measures and
methods
4. Periodical review and audit savings
5. Evaluation of proposed method for its
effectiveness
6. Feedback from the evaluation reports

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) has established the five standard symbols
are described as follows

Operation

An operation occurs when an object is
intentionally changed in one or more of its
characteristics. An operation represents a
major step in the process and usually occurs
at a machine or work station.
A transportation occurs when an object is
moved from one place to another, except
when the movement is an integral part of
an operation or and inspection.

An inspection occurs when an object is
examined for identification or is compare
with a standard as to quantity or quality.
A delay occurs when the immediate
performance of the next planned action does
not take place.

Storage

A storage occurs when an object is kept
under control such that its withdrawal requires
authorization.
Two symbols may be combined when activities
are performed at the same work place or when
they are performed concurrently as one activity.

Represents a combined operation and
inspection.

Represents a combined operation and
transportation.




A process chart is a graphical representation
of the sequence of events and related
information that occur in the work method or
procedures.
Types
1. Outline process chart
2. Flow process chart
3. Two handed process chart
Is a process chart given an overall picture by
recording in sequence only the main
operations and inspections.
It does not show where work takes place or
who performs it.
It is only concerned with operations and
inspections
Hence only the symbols of operation and
inspection are used in preparing this chart
To improve the plant layout
For simplifying the basic manufacturing
systems
For determining the sequence of assembly
To introduce manufacturing system to new
technical personnel
Nut (Part C) Washer B) Bolt(A)
Drilling Blank cutting Upset forging
Threading Drilling Threading
Inspection Inspection

Put washer on bolt
Put nut on the bolt
Final inspection
Summary

1
2
3
4
1
5
7
6
8
2
3
No of operations

8
No of inspections

3
The flow process chart is a process chart setting out
the sequence of the flow of a product or a procedure
by recording all events under review using
appropriate process chart symbols.

The flow process chart is a device for recording a
process in a compact manner, as a means of better
understanding it and improving it.

The chart represents graphically the separate steps or
events that occur during the performance of a task or
doing a series of actions.

The chart usually begins with the raw material
entering the factory and follows it through every step.
Worker (Man) type
Product or Material type
Machine type

Application Of Flow Process Chart:
1.To fix the sequence of operations
2. To reduce the cycle time by combining or
eliminating operations
3. To reduce the distance travelled by
men/materials
4. To avoid waiting time and unnecessary
delays
Same as outline process chart but it uses all
the five symbols for charting
At a time it can record flow of either man,
material or equipment on a single chart
For a man type chart, we talk about the man
holding a thing or product or material
Whereas for a material type chart, we speak
about material being handled.
1. The details must be obtained by direct
observationcharts must not be based on memory.
2. All the facts must be correctly recorded.
3. No assumptions should be made.
4. Make it easy for future reference.
5. Charts must have the following details:
(a) Name of the product, material or equipment that
is observed.
(b) Starting point and ending point.
(c) The location where the activities take place.
(d) The chart reference number, sheet number and
number of total sheets.
(e) Key to the symbols used must be stated.
A worker-type flow process chart is a flow
process chart which records what the worker
does.
Service and maintenance work, laboratory procedure
and work of supervisors and executives can be
recorded on this type of charts.

The definition of the worker-type chart is that it records
what the worker does.
The definitions of the other two flow process charts,
state that they record (material type) how material is
handled or treated, and (equipment type) how the
equipment is used.

MAN
TYPE
MATERIAL
TYPE

It is the process chart in which the activities
of two hands of the operator are recorded.

It shows whether the two hands of the
operator are idle or moving in relation to one
another, in a timescale.

It is generally used for repetitive operations.

Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position,
use, release etc. of a tool, component or material.
Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or
limb to or from the work or a tool or material.
Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb is
idle.
Storage (Hold): The term hold is used here instead
of storage. This refers to the time when the work is
held by hand.
The activity inspection by hand is considered as an
operation. Hence, the symbol for inspection is not
used in this chart.
Two-handed process chart can be used for
assembly, machining and clerical jobs.
1. Provide all information about the job in the
chart.
2. Study the operation cycle few times before
starting to record.
3. Record one hand at a time.
4. First record the activities of the hand which
starts the work first.
5. Do not combine the different activities like
operations, transport etc.
In any production shop, repair shop or any other
department, there are movements of men and material
from one place to another.
Process charts indicate the sequence of activities. They do
not show the frequent movements of men and material. If
these movement are minimized, a lot of savings can be
achieved in cost and effort. If the path of movement of
material is not frequent and simple, a flow diagram is used
for recording the movement.
A flow diagram is a diagram which is drawn to scale. The
relative position of machineries, ways, material handling
equipment etc. are drawn first.
Then the path followed by men or material is marked on
the diagram. Different movements can be marked in
different colours.
Process symbols are added to the diagram to identify the
different activities at different work centres.
1. To remove unwanted material movement.
2. To avoid traffic congestion.
3. To improve the plant layout.

Construction
1. Heading and description of the process should be given at the top
of the diagram.
2. Other information's like location, name of the shop, name of the
person drawing the diagram are also given.
3. The path followed by the material is shown by a flow line.
4. Direction of movement is shown by small arrows along the flow
lines.
5. The different activities are represented by the symbols on the flow
lines. (Same symbols used in flow process chart are used here).
6. If more than one product is to be shown in the diagram different
colours are used for each path

The string diagram is a scale plan or model on which a thread
is used to trace and measure the path of workers, material or
equipment during a specified sequence of events

We make use of flow diagram for recording the movement
of men or material when the movement is simple and the
path is almost fixed. But when the paths are many and are
repetitive, it may not be possible to record them in a flow
diagram. Here a string diagram is used.
String diagram is a scaled plan of the shop. Location of
machines and various facilities are drawn to scale in a
drawing sheet. Pins are fixed at the various work centres in
the drawing sheet. A continuous coloured thread or string
is taken round the pins where the material or worker
moves during the process.
1. Draw the layout of the shop to scale in a
drawing sheet.
2. Mark the various work centres like machines,
stores, work bench etc. in the diagram.
3. Hold the drawing sheet on a soft board and fix
pins at the work centres.
4. Tie one end of a coloured string to the work
centre from which the movement starts.
5. Follow the path of the worker to different work
centre and accordingly take the thread to
different points on the drawing board.
6. At the end of the session note down the
number of movements from one work centre to
another.
7. Remove the string and measure the total
length of the string. Multiply by the scale and get
the actual distance of movement
1. It is used for recording the complex
movements of material or men.
2. Congestion, bottlenecks, under utilized
paths are easily found out.
3. It is used to check whether the work
station is correctly located.
4. Used to record irregular movements.
5. Used to find out the most economical
route.


A man-machine chart is a chart in which the activities of
more than one worker or machine are recorded. Activities
are recorded on a common time scale to show the inter-
relationship. It is also known as multiple activity chart.
It is used when a worker operates a number of machines at
a time. It is also used when a number of workers jointly do
a job.
Activities of workers or machines are recorded in separate
vertical columns (bars) with a horizontal time scale.
The chart shows the idle time of the worker or machine
during the process. By carefully analyzing the chart, we
can rearrange the activities.
Work load is evenly distributed among the workers or
machines by this the idle time of worker or machine is
reduced.
Using the chart we can find out the correct number of
machines that a worker can operate at a time. We can also
find out the exact number of workers needed to do a job
jointly.


(simultaneous motion-cycle chart. )

Is used to record simultaneously (at the same time) on a
common time scale the activities of two hands or other parts
of workers body during the performance of a single cycle of
operation being investigated.

SIMO chart may be constructed from data collected from
motion film analysis

The SIMO Chart is the micro-motion form of the man type
flow process chart.

SIMO charts are used primarily for operations of short
duration, often performed with extreme rapidity.





A SIMO chart is a chart , often based on film
analysis used to record simultaneously on a
common time scale the therblings or group of
therblings performed by different parts of the
body of one or more workers.

Therblings are the symbols used to denote
the various activities and movements done
for different purposes.
GODWIN\PPCE\Class4 SIMO CHART.pdf



Is a tabular record for presenting quantitative
data about the movement of workers, materials
or equipment between any number of places over
any given period of time.
When the movement patterns are complex, the
travel chart is a quicker and more manageable
recording techniques.(than string diagram)
Travel chart is a record of the amount of travel by
the worker or material in process while going
from machine to machine or from department to
another, amount of travel depends upon the
frequency of movements between sections or
departments.
Travel chart is also known as from to-chart,
trip frequency chart, cross chart,
Travel chart consists of a square, which itself
consists of a number of squares.
Each small square represents a work station.
Diagonal line is drawn from top left to bottom
right.
If a workplace consists of 10 workstations, A
big square is drawn and it is divided into
(10 X 10 =100) small squares.
Movement of the worker from any station to
other station is marked by using tick marks.
Are used when path or movement/motion of
an operators hands, fingers etc is to be
recorded.
Are very useful to trace those movements
which are too fast for the human eye to
pursue.
Cycle graph
Is a record of path of movement, usually
traced by a continuous source of light on a
photograph.

A small electric bulb is attached to the hand,
finger or any other part of body whose
motion is to be analysed or recorded.
As bulb moves through the space for one
complete cycle, path is photographed by still
photograph.
Thus the path of the light shows the path of
the motion and the path of the photograph is
called cycle graph.
Limitation of cycle graph is that it will not
give the direction or the speed of movement.
.
It overcomes the limitation of the cycle graph
Is a special form of cycle graph in which the light
source is suitably interrupted so that the path
appears as a series of pear-shaped dots.
The pointed end of the pear-shaped dot shows
the direction of movement and the shape and
spacing of these dots indicate whether the speed
of working is increasing or decreasing.
More elongated dots with longer gaps between
them indicate higher working speed.
By knowing the rate at which light source is being
interrupted, the speed of the movement can be
easily determined.
.
Peer shaped dots
Work measurement is a technique to
establish the time required for a qualified
worker to carry out a specified job at a
defined level of performance.
Objectives of work measurement
1. To reduce or eliminate non-productive
time.
2. To fix the standard time for doing a job.
3. To develop standard data for future
reference.
4. To improve methods.
1. To compare the efficiency of alternate methods. When two
or more methods are available for doing the same job, the
time for each method is found out by work measurement.
The method which takes minimum time is selected.

2. Standard time is used as a basis for wage incentive
schemes.

3. It helps for the estimation of cost. Knowing the time
standards, it is possible to work out the cost of the product.
This helps to quote rates for tenders.

4. It helps to plan the workload of man and machine.

5. It helps to determine the requirement of men and machine.
When we know the time to produce one piece and also the
quantity to be produced, it is easy to calculate the total
requirement of men and machines.

6. It helps in better production control. Time
standards help accurate scheduling. So the
production control can be done efficiently.

7. It helps to control the cost of production. With
the help of time standards, the cost of
production can be worked out. This cost is used
as a basis for control.

8. It helps to fix the delivery date to the
customer. By knowing the standard time we will
be able to calculate the time required for
manufacturing the required quantity of products.

1. Stop watch time study.
2. Production study.
3. Work sampling or Ratio delay study.
4. Synthesis from standard data.
5. Analytical estimating.
6. Predetermined motion time system.

Timing device
Time study observation sheet
Time study observation board
Other equipments

Timing Device
The stop watch and the electronic timer are the
most widely used timing devices used for time
study.
They two perform the same function with the
difference that electronics timer can measure
time to the second or third decimal of a second
and can keep a large volume of time data in
memory.



The watch has two hands
Small hand represents minutes on dial and
completes one revolution in 30 minutes
The large hand represents centi-minutes and
completes one revolution in one minute, and
each division on large dial reads 0.01
minutes.
Sliding switch(left side) for starting & stoping.
Winding knob (centre), pressure on this knob
returns both hands to zero.

It is a printed form with space provided for
noting down the necessary information about
the operation being studied like name of
operation, drawing number, name of the
operator, name of time study person, and the
date and place of study.
Space are provided in the form for writing
detailed description of the process (element-
wise), recording stop-watch readings for each
element of the process, performance rating(s)
of the operator, and computation.

It is a light -weight board used for holding the
observation sheet and stopwatch in position. It is of
size slightly larger than that of observation sheet
used.
Generally, the watch is mounted at the centre of the
top edge or the upper right-hand corner of the
board. The board has a clamp to hold the observation
sheet.
During the time study, the board is held against the
body and the upper left arm by the time study person
in such a way that the watch could be operated by the
thumb/index finger of the left hand. Watch readings
are recorded on the observation sheet by the right
hand.
Other Equipments
Includes pencil, eraser and device like tachometer for
checking the speed, etc.

Stop watch time study is one of the techniques of
work measurement commonly used. Here we use
stop watch for measuring the time.

PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING STOP WATCH TIME
STUDY
1. Selecting the job.
2. Recording the specifications.
3. Breaking operation into elements.
4. Examining each element.
5. Measuring using stop watch.
6. Assessing the rating factor.
7. Calculating the basic time.
8. Determining the allowances.
9. Compiling the standard time.
Time study is always done after method study.
Under the following situations, a job is selected
for time study:
1. A new job, new component or a new
operation.
2. When new time standard is required.
3. To check the correctness of the existing time
standard.
4. When the cost of operation is found to be
high.
5. Before introducing an incentive scheme.
6. When two methods are to be compared.
The following information's are recorded
1. About the product-name, product-number,
specification.
2. About the machine, equipment and tools.
3. About the working condition-temperature-
humidity-lighting etc. These information's are
used when deciding about the allowances.
4. About the operator, name-experience-age
etc. This is needed for rating the operator.

Each operation is divided into a number of
elements.

This is done for easy observation and
accurate measurement.

The elements are grouped as constant
element, variable element, occasional
element, man element, machine element etc.
1. To separate productive time and unproductive
time.
2. To assess the rating of the worker more
accurately.
3. To identify the different types of elements
and to measure their timings separately.
4. To determine the fatigue allowance
accurately.
5. To prepare a detailed work specification.
6. To fix standard time for repetitive elements
(such as switch on or switch off of machine).
1. Repetitive elements
It is an element which occurs in every work cycle of the job.
Example
Loading the machine, locating a job in a fixture.

2. Constant element
It is an element for which the basic time remains constant
whenever it is performed.
Example
Switching on the machine, switching off the machine.

3. Variable element
It is an element for which the basic time varies depending on the
characteristics of the product, equipment or process.
Example
Turning, facing etc
Saving a log of wood-time changes with diameter or the work.

4. Occasional element
It is an element which does not occur in every work cycle of the
job. It may occur at regular or irregular intervals.
Example
Grinding of tools, re-setting of tools.
5. Foreign element
It is an element which is not a part of the job.
Example
Cleaning a job that is to be machined.
6. Manual element
It is an element performed by the worker.
Example
Cleaning the machine, loading the machine.
7. Machine element
It is the element automatically performed by a power driven
machine.
Example
Turning in a lathe using automatic feed.


1. Element should have a definite beginning and
ending.
2. An element should be as short as possible so
that it can be conveniently timed.
The shortest element that can be timed using a
stop watch is 0.04 mt.
3. Manual elements and machine elements
should be separately timed.
4. Constant element should be separated from
variable elements.
5. Occasional and foreign elements should be
timed separately.
The elements are examined to find out
whether they are effective or waste.

Elements are also examined whether they are
done in the correct method.
The time taken for each element is measured using
a stop watch.
There are two methods
1.Fly back method
2.Cumulative method.
Cumulative method is preferable. The time
measured from the stop watch is known as observed
time.
Time for various groups of elements should be
recorded separately. This measurement has to be
done for a number of times.
The number of observations depend upon the type
of operation, the accuracy required and time for one
cycle.
There are two methods of timing using a stop watch.
1. Fly back or Snap back method.
2. Continuous or Cumulative method.
1. Fly back method
Here the stop watch is started at the beginning of the
first element. At the end of the element the reading is
noted in the study sheet.
At the same time, the stop watch hand is snapped
back to zero. This is done by pressing down the
knob, immediately the knob is released.
The hand starts moving from zero for timing the next
element. In this way the timing for each element is
found out. This is called observed time (O.T.) .
Here the stop watch is started at the beginning
of the first element.
The watch runs continuously throughout the
study.
At the end of each element the watch readings
are recorded on the study sheet.
The time for each element is calculated by
successive subtraction.
The final reading of the stop watch gives the
total time. This is the observed time (O.T.).
Rating is the measure of efficiency of a worker.
The operators rating is found out by comparing
his speed of work with standard performance.

The rating of an operator is decided by the work
study man in consultation with the supervisor.

The standard rating is taken as 100. If the
operator is found to be slow, his rating is less
than 100 say 90. If the operator is above
average, his rating is more than 100, say 120.
Basic time is calculated as follows by applying
rating factor


Operator rating
Basic time = Observed time x
Standard rating

OR
BT = OT X
SR
This is the actual time observed by using a
stop watch. The observed time of an
operation is the total of the elemental times.
The time study for the same job is conducted
for a number of times. The average of the
observed times is calculated.
Basic or normal time
Basic time is the time taken by a worker with
standard performance.
Basic time is calculated from the observed
time by applying the rating factor
A worker cannot work all the day continuously.
He will require rest going for toilet, drinking
water etc.
Unavoidable delays may occur because of tool
breakage etc.
So some extra time is added to the basic time.
The extra time is known as allowance.
Various types of allowance are
1. Rest and personal allowance.
2. Process allowance.
3. Contingency allowance.
4. Special allowance.
5. Policy allowance.
Standard time or allowed time is the total time in
which a job should be completed at standard
performance.
The standard time is the sum of basic time and
allowances. The standard time is also known as
allowed time.

The standard time is obtained by adding the following
allowances with the basic or normal time.
1. Rest and personal allowance or relaxation
allowance.
2. Process allowance or unavoidable delay allowance.
3. Contingency allowance.
4. Special allowance.
Policy allowance may be added to the standard time if
the management wants.
.
Production study is a technique of work
measurement to check accuracy of the
original time study.
This study is done to find the time delay due
to occasional elements. These elements may
occur at irregular intervals.
Example: Tool grinding, setting tools etc.
There are chances of missing these elements
in the stop watch time study.
Production study is conducted for a longer
periodat least for half a day or one shift
This study is also known as work sampling or
activity sampling. Here the ratio of the delay
time and working time to the total time of an
activity is found out. This is done by random
(irregular) observations. This study is applied to

1. Long cycle operations.

2. Activities where time study is not possible.
Synthesis is a work measurement technique to work out
standard time for a job by totaling the elemental times
already obtained from previous time studies. Many
operators in an industry have several common elements.
Example: starting the machine, stopping the machine etc.
Whenever these activities occur, they take the same
duration of time. These elements are called constant
elements.

Time for some elements vary proportionately with the speed,
feed, length of cut etc. in machining operation. These
elements are known as variable elements. Time for all
these constant elements and variable elements are
collected from the time studies previously made. These are
stored in a file. This is called time standard data bank.
Data bank contains data in the form of
1. Tabulated standard time for constant elements.
2. Charts and graphs.
3. Formulae etc.
Setting the time standards for long and non-
repetitive operations by stop watch method
are uneconomical. Analytical estimating
technique determines the time values for
such jobs either by using the synthetic data
or on the basic of the past experience of the
estimator when no synthetic or standard data
is available. In order to produce accurate
results the estimator must have sufficient
experience of estimating, motion study, time
study and the use of synthesized time
standards.
PMTS is a work measurement technique where by
times, established for basic human motions
(classified according to the nature of the motion
and the conditions under which it is made) are
used to build up the time for a job at a defined
level of performance. Few well-known systems
using this concept are
1. M.T.M. : Method Time Measurement.
2. W.F.S. : Work Factor System.
3. M.T.A. : Motion Time Analysis.
4. D.M.T. : Dimensional Motion Times.
5. B.M.T. : Basic Motion Times.
Ergons means work and Nomos means
Natural laws.
Ergonomics or its American equivalent
Human Engineering may be defined as the
scientific study of the relationship between
man and his working environments.
Ergonomics implies Fitting the job to the
worker.
Ergonomics combines the knowledge of a
psychologist, physiologist, anatomist,
engineer, anthropologist and a biometrician.
The objectives of the study of ergonomics is to
optimize the integration of man and machine in order
to increase work rate and accuracy. It involves
1. The design of a work place be fitting the needs and
requirements of the worker.
2. The design of equipment, machinery and controls in
such a manner so as to minimize mental and physical
strain on the worker thereby increasing the efficiency.
3. The design of a conductive environment for
executing the task most effectively.

Both work study and Ergonomics are complementary
and try to fit the job to the workers; however
Ergonomics adequately takes care of factors governing
physical and mental strains.
In practice, ergonomics has been applied to a number of areas as discussed below
1. Working environments 2. The work place, and 3. Other areas.
1. Working environments
(a) The environment aspect includes considerations regarding light, climatic conditions
(i.e., temperature, humidity and fresh air circulation), noise, bad odour, smokes, fumes,
etc., which affect the health and efficiency of a worker.
(b) Day light should be reinforced with artificial lights, depending upon the nature of
work.
(c) The environment should be well-ventilated and comfortable.
(d) Dust and fume collectors should preferably be attached with the equipments giving
rise to them.
(e) Glares and reflections coming from glazed and polished surfaces should be avoided.
(f) For better perception, different parts or sub-systems of equipment should be
coloured suitably. Colours also add to the sense of pleasure.
(g) Excessive contrast, owing of colour or badly located windows, etc., should be eluded.
(h) Noise, no doubt distracts the attention (thoughts, mind) but if it is slow and
continuous, workers become habituated to it. When the noise is high pitched,
intermittent or sudden, it is more dangerous and needs to be dampened by isolating the
place of noise and through the use of sound absorbing materials.
Design considerations
(a) Materials and tools should be available at their predetermined places and
close to the worker.
(b) Tools and materials should preferably be located in the order in which they
will be used.
(c) The supply of materials or parts, if similar work is to be done by each hand,
should be
duplicated. That is materials or parts to be assembled by right hand should be
kept on right hand side and those to be assembled by the left hand should be
kept on left hand side.
(d) Gravity should be employed, wherever possible, to make raw materials
reach the operator and to deliver material at its destination (e.g., dropping
material through a chute).
(e) Height of the chair and work bench should be arranged in a way that
permits comfortable work posture. To ensure this
Height of the chair should be such that top of the work table is about 50 mm
below the elbow level of the operator.
Height of the table should be such that worker can work in both standing and
sitting positions.
Flat foot rests should be provided for sitting workers.
The height and back of the chair should be adjustable.
Display panel should be at right angles to the line or sight of the operator.
(f) An instrument with a pointer should be employed
for check readings where as for quantitative readings,
digital type of instrument should be preferred.
(g) Hand tools should be possible to be picked up
with least disturbance or rhythm and symmetry of
movements.
(h) Foot pedals should be used, wherever possible,
for clamping declamping and for disposal of finished
work.
(i) Handles, levers and foot pedals should be possible
to be operated without changing body position.
(j) Work place must be properly illuminated and
should be free from glare to avoid eye strain.
(k) Work place should be free from the presence of
disagreeable elements like heat, smoke, dust, noise,
excess humidity, vibrations etc.
It is within the easy reach of the operator.
It is accessible with full arm stretch. Figure 1.14 shows
work place layout for assembling small component parts.
A-1 is the actual working area and the place of assembly
(POA) where four component parts P-1, P-2, P-3, and P-4
are assembled together. Bins containing P-1, P-2, P-3,
and P-4 and commonly employed tools (CET) (like screw
driver, plier, etc.) lie in the normal working area A-2.
ORT
Occasionally required Tools (ORT) (hammers etc.) lie in the
maximum working area A- 3. After the assembly has been
made at POA, it is dropped into the cut portion in the work
table PDA (Place for dropping assemblies) from where
the assembly is delivered at its destination with the help of
a conveyer. This work place arrangement satisfies most of
the principles of motion economy
Other areas include studies related to fatigue,
losses caused due to fatigue, rest pauses,
amount of energy consumed, shift work and
age considerations


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