CENG 213 Data Structures 1

Algorithm Analysis
CENG 213 Data Structures 2
Algorithm
An algorithm is a set of instructions to be followed to
solve a problem.
There can be more than one solution (more than one
algorithm) to solve a given problem.
An algorithm can be implemented using different
programming languages on different platforms.
An algorithm must be correct. It should correctly solve
the problem.
e.g. For sorting, this means even if (1) the input is already
sorted, or (2) it contains repeated elements.
Once we have a correct algorithm for a problem, we
have to determine the efficiency of that algorithm.

CENG 213 Data Structures 3
Algorithmic Performance
There are two aspects of algorithmic performance:
Time
Instructions take time.
How fast does the algorithm perform?
What affects its runtime?
Space
Data structures take space
What kind of data structures can be used?
How does choice of data structure affect the runtime?
We will focus on time:
How to estimate the time required for an algorithm
How to reduce the time required
CENG 213 Data Structures 4
Analysis of Algorithms
Analysis of Algorithms is the area of computer science that
provides tools to analyze the efficiency of different methods of
solutions.
How do we compare the time efficiency of two algorithms that
solve the same problem?
Nave Approach: implement these algorithms in a programming
language (C++), and run them to compare their time
requirements. Comparing the programs (instead of algorithms)
has difficulties.
How are the algorithms coded?
Comparing running times means comparing the implementations.
We should not compare implementations, because they are sensitive to programming
style that may cloud the issue of which algorithm is inherently more efficient.
What computer should we use?
We should compare the efficiency of the algorithms independently of a particular
computer.
What data should the program use?
Any analysis must be independent of specific data.
CENG 213 Data Structures 5
Analysis of Algorithms
When we analyze algorithms, we should employ
mathematical techniques that analyze algorithms
independently of specific implementations,
computers, or data.

To analyze algorithms:
First, we start to count the number of significant
operations in a particular solution to assess its
efficiency.
Then, we will express the efficiency of algorithms
using growth functions.

CENG 213 Data Structures 6
The Execution Time of Algorithms
Each operation in an algorithm (or a program) has a cost.
Each operation takes a certain of time.

count = count + 1; take a certain amount of time, but it is constant

A sequence of operations:

count = count + 1; Cost: c
1
sum = sum + count; Cost: c
2

Total Cost = c
1
+ c
2

CENG 213 Data Structures 7
The Execution Time of Algorithms (cont.)
Example: Simple If-Statement
Cost Times
if (n < 0) c1 1
absval = -n c2 1
else
absval = n; c3 1

Total Cost <= c1 + max(c2,c3)

CENG 213 Data Structures 8
The Execution Time of Algorithms (cont.)
Example: Simple Loop
Cost Times
i = 1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
i = i + 1; c4 n
sum = sum + i; c5 n
}

Total Cost = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*c5
The time required for this algorithm is proportional to n
CENG 213 Data Structures 9
The Execution Time of Algorithms (cont.)
Example: Nested Loop
Cost Times
i=1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
j=1; c4 n
while (j <= n) { c5 n*(n+1)
sum = sum + i; c6 n*n
j = j + 1; c7 n*n
}
i = i +1; c8 n
}
Total Cost = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*(n+1)*c5+n*n*c6+n*n*c7+n*c8
The time required for this algorithm is proportional to n
2

CENG 213 Data Structures 10
General Rules for Estimation
Loops: The running time of a loop is at most the running time
of the statements inside of that loop times the number of
iterations.
Nested Loops: Running time of a nested loop containing a
statement in the inner most loop is the running time of statement
multiplied by the product of the sized of all loops.
Consecutive Statements: Just add the running times of those
consecutive statements.
If/Else: Never more than the running time of the test plus the
larger of running times of S1 and S2.

CENG 213 Data Structures 11
Algorithm Growth Rates
We measure an algorithms time requirement as a function of the
problem size.
Problem size depends on the application: e.g. number of elements in a list for a
sorting algorithm, the number disks for towers of hanoi.
So, for instance, we say that (if the problem size is n)
Algorithm A requires 5*n
2
time units to solve a problem of size n.
Algorithm B requires 7*n time units to solve a problem of size n.
The most important thing to learn is how quickly the algorithms
time requirement grows as a function of the problem size.
Algorithm A requires time proportional to n
2
.
Algorithm B requires time proportional to n.
An algorithms proportional time requirement is known as
growth rate.
We can compare the efficiency of two algorithms by comparing
their growth rates.


CENG 213 Data Structures 12
Algorithm Growth Rates (cont.)
Time requirements as a function
of the problem size n

CENG 213 Data Structures 13
Common Growth Rates
Function Growth Rate Name
c Constant
log N Logarithmic
log
2
N Log-squared
N Linear
N log N
N
2
Quadratic
N
3
Cubic
2
N
Exponential
CENG 213 Data Structures 14
Figure 6.1
Running times for small inputs
CENG 213 Data Structures 15
Figure 6.2
Running times for moderate inputs
CENG 213 Data Structures 16
Order-of-Magnitude Analysis and Big O
Notation
If Algorithm A requires time proportional to f(n), Algorithm A is
said to be order f(n), and it is denoted as O(f(n)).
The function f(n) is called the algorithms growth-rate
function.
Since the capital O is used in the notation, this notation is called
the Big O notation.
If Algorithm A requires time proportional to n
2
, it is O(n
2
).
If Algorithm A requires time proportional to n, it is O(n).


CENG 213 Data Structures 17
Definition of the Order of an Algorithm
Definition:
Algorithm A is order f(n) denoted as O(f(n))
if constants k and n
0
exist such that A requires
no more than k*f(n) time units to solve a problem
of size n n
0
.

The requirement of n n
0
in the definition of O(f(n)) formalizes
the notion of sufficiently large problems.
In general, many values of k and n can satisfy this definition.
CENG 213 Data Structures 18
Order of an Algorithm
If an algorithm requires n
2
3*n+10 seconds to solve a problem
size n. If constants k and n
0
exist such that
k*n
2
> n
2
3*n+10 for all n n
0
.
the algorithm is order n
2

(In fact, k is 3 and n
0
is 2)
3*n
2
> n
2
3*n+10 for all n 2 .
Thus, the algorithm requires no more than k*n
2
time units for n
n
0
,
So it is O(n
2
)

CENG 213 Data Structures 19
Order of an Algorithm (cont.)
CENG 213 Data Structures 20
A Comparison of Growth-Rate Functions
CENG 213 Data Structures 21
A Comparison of Growth-Rate Functions (cont.)
CENG 213 Data Structures 22
Growth-Rate Functions
O(1) Time requirement is constant, and it is independent of the problems size.
O(log
2
n) Time requirement for a logarithmic algorithm increases increases slowly
as the problem size increases.
O(n) Time requirement for a linear algorithm increases directly with the size
of the problem.
O(n*log
2
n) Time requirement for a n*log
2
n algorithm increases more rapidly than
a linear algorithm.
O(n
2
) Time requirement for a quadratic algorithm increases rapidly with the
size of the problem.
O(n
3
) Time requirement for a cubic algorithm increases more rapidly with the
size of the problem than the time requirement for a quadratic algorithm.
O(2
n
) As the size of the problem increases, the time requirement for an
exponential algorithm increases too rapidly to be practical.

CENG 213 Data Structures 23
Growth-Rate Functions
If an algorithm takes 1 second to run with the problem size 8,
what is the time requirement (approximately) for that algorithm
with the problem size 16?
If its order is:
O(1) T(n) = 1 second
O(log
2
n) T(n) = (1*log
2
16) / log
2
8 = 4/3 seconds
O(n) T(n) = (1*16) / 8 = 2 seconds
O(n*log
2
n) T(n) = (1*16*log
2
16) / 8*log
2
8 = 8/3 seconds
O(n
2
) T(n) = (1*16
2
) / 8
2
= 4 seconds
O(n
3
) T(n) = (1*16
3
) / 8
3
= 8 seconds
O(2
n
) T(n) = (1*2
16
) / 2
8
= 2
8
seconds = 256 seconds

CENG 213 Data Structures 24
Properties of Growth-Rate Functions
1. We can ignore low-order terms in an algorithms growth-rate
function.
If an algorithm is O(n
3
+4n
2
+3n), it is also O(n
3
).
We only use the higher-order term as algorithms growth-rate function.

2. We can ignore a multiplicative constant in the higher-order term
of an algorithms growth-rate function.
If an algorithm is O(5n
3
), it is also O(n
3
).

3. O(f(n)) + O(g(n)) = O(f(n)+g(n))
We can combine growth-rate functions.
If an algorithm is O(n
3
) + O(4n), it is also O(n
3
+4n
2
) So, it is O(n
3
).
Similar rules hold for multiplication.
CENG 213 Data Structures 25
Some Mathematical Facts
Some mathematical equalities are:
2 2
) 1 ( *
... 2 1
2
1
n n n
n i
n
i

3 6
) 1 2 ( * ) 1 ( *
... 4 1
3
1
2 2
n n n n
n i
n
i

1 2 2 ... 2 1 0 2
1
0
1

n
i
n n i
CENG 213 Data Structures 26
Growth-Rate Functions Example1
Cost Times
i = 1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
i = i + 1; c4 n
sum = sum + i; c5 n
}

T(n) = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*c5
= (c3+c4+c5)*n + (c1+c2+c3)
= a*n + b
So, the growth-rate function for this algorithm is O(n)

CENG 213 Data Structures 27
Growth-Rate Functions Example2
Cost Times
i=1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
j=1; c4 n
while (j <= n) { c5 n*(n+1)
sum = sum + i; c6 n*n
j = j + 1; c7 n*n
}
i = i +1; c8 n
}
T(n) = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*(n+1)*c5+n*n*c6+n*n*c7+n*c8
= (c5+c6+c7)*n
2
+ (c3+c4+c5+c8)*n + (c1+c2+c3)
= a*n
2
+ b*n + c
So, the growth-rate function for this algorithm is O(n
2
)

CENG 213 Data Structures 28
Growth-Rate Functions Example3
Cost Times
for (i=1; i<=n; i++) c1 n+1

for (j=1; j<=i; j++) c2

for (k=1; k<=j; k++) c3

x=x+1; c4


T(n) = c1*(n+1) + c2*( ) + c3* ( ) + c4*( )

= a*n
3
+ b*n
2
+ c*n + d
So, the growth-rate function for this algorithm is O(n
3
)

n
j
j
1
) 1 (

n
j
j
k
k
1 1
) 1 (

n
j
j
k
k
1 1

n
j
j
1
) 1 (



n
j
j
k
k
1 1
) 1 (

n
j
j
k
k
1 1
CENG 213 Data Structures 29
Growth-Rate Functions Recursive Algorithms
void hanoi(int n, char source, char dest, char spare) { Cost
if (n > 0) { c1
hanoi(n-1, source, spare, dest); c2
cout << "Move top disk from pole " << source c3
<< " to pole " << dest << endl;
hanoi(n-1, spare, dest, source); c4
} }

The time-complexity function T(n) of a recursive algorithm is
defined in terms of itself, and this is known as recurrence equation
for T(n).
To find the growth-rate function for a recursive algorithm, we have
to solve its recurrence relation.
CENG 213 Data Structures 30
Growth-Rate Functions Hanoi Towers
What is the cost of hanoi(n,A,B,C)?

when n=0
T(0) = c1

when n>0
T(n) = c1 + c2 + T(n-1) + c3 + c4 + T(n-1)
= 2*T(n-1) + (c1+c2+c3+c4)
= 2*T(n-1) + c recurrence equation for the growth-rate
function of hanoi-towers algorithm

Now, we have to solve this recurrence equation to find the growth-rate
function of hanoi-towers algorithm

CENG 213 Data Structures 31
Growth-Rate Functions Hanoi Towers (cont.)
There are many methods to solve recurrence equations, but we will use a simple
method known as repeated substitutions.

T(n) = 2*T(n-1) + c
= 2 * (2*T(n-2)+c) + c
= 2 * (2* (2*T(n-3)+c) + c) + c
= 2
3
* T(n-3) + (2
2
+2
1
+2
0
)*c (assuming n>2)
when substitution repeated i-1
th
times
= 2
i
* T(n-i) + (2
i-1
+ ... +2
1
+2
0
)*c
when i=n
= 2
n
* T(0) + (2
n-1
+ ... +2
1
+2
0
)*c
= 2
n
* c1 + ( )*c

= 2
n
* c1 + ( 2
n
-1 )*c = 2
n
*(c1+c) c So, the growth rate function is O(2
n
)

1
0
2
n
i
i
CENG 213 Data Structures 32
What to Analyze
An algorithm can require different times to solve different
problems of the same size.
Eg. Searching an item in a list of n elements using sequential search. Cost:
1,2,...,n
Worst-Case Analysis The maximum amount of time that an
algorithm require to solve a problem of size n.
This gives an upper bound for the time complexity of an algorithm.
Normally, we try to find worst-case behavior of an algorithm.
Best-Case Analysis The minimum amount of time that an
algorithm require to solve a problem of size n.
The best case behavior of an algorithm is NOT so useful.
Average-Case Analysis The average amount of time that an
algorithm require to solve a problem of size n.
Sometimes, it is difficult to find the average-case behavior of an algorithm.
We have to look at all possible data organizations of a given size n, and their
distribution probabilities of these organizations.
Worst-case analysis is more common than average-case analysis.
CENG 213 Data Structures 33
What is Important?
An array-based list retrieve operation is O(1), a linked-list-
based list retrieve operation is O(n).
But insert and delete operations are much easier on a linked-list-
based list implementation.
When selecting the implementation of an Abstract Data Type
(ADT), we have to consider how frequently particular ADT
operations occur in a given application.

If the problem size is always small, we can probably ignore the
algorithms efficiency.
In this case, we should choose the simplest algorithm.
CENG 213 Data Structures 34
What is Important? (cont.)
We have to weigh the trade-offs between an algorithms time
requirement and its memory requirements.
We have to compare algorithms for both style and efficiency.
The analysis should focus on gross differences in efficiency and not reward coding
tricks that save small amount of time.
That is, there is no need for coding tricks if the gain is not too much.
Easily understandable program is also important.
Order-of-magnitude analysis focuses on large problems.
CENG 213 Data Structures 35
Sequential Search
int sequentialSearch(const int a[], int item, int n){
for (int i = 0; i < n && a[i]!= item; i++);
if (i == n)
return 1;
return i;
}
Unsuccessful Search: O(n)

Successful Search:
Best-Case: item is in the first location of the array O(1)
Worst-Case: item is in the last location of the array O(n)
Average-Case: The number of key comparisons 1, 2, ..., n


O(n)
n
n n
n
i
n
i
2 / ) (
2
1

CENG 213 Data Structures 36

Binary Search
int binarySearch(int a[], int size, int x) {
int low =0;
int high = size 1;
int mid; // mid will be the index of
// target when its found.
while (low <= high) {
mid = (low + high)/2;
if (a[mid] < x)
low = mid + 1;
else if (a[mid] > x)
high = mid 1;
else
return mid;
}
return 1;
}
CENG 213 Data Structures 37
Binary Search Analysis
For an unsuccessful search:
The number of iterations in the loop is log
2
n + 1
O(log
2
n)
For a successful search:
Best-Case: The number of iterations is 1. O(1)
Worst-Case: The number of iterations is log
2
n +1 O(log
2
n)
Average-Case: The avg. # of iterations < log
2
n O(log
2
n)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 an array with size 8
3 2 3 1 3 2 3 4 # of iterations
The average # of iterations = 21/8 < log
2
8
CENG 213 Data Structures 38
How much better is O(log
2
n)?
n O(log
2
n)
16 4
64 6
256 8
1024 (1KB) 10
16,384 14
131,072 17
262,144 18
524,288 19
1,048,576 (1MB) 20
1,073,741,824 (1GB) 30