BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

IN METALWORKING
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing
 Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause significant
shape change by deforming metal parts whose
initial form is bulk rather than sheet
 Starting forms:
 Cylindrical bars and billets,
 Rectangular billets and slabs, and similar
shapes
 These processes stress metal sufficiently to
cause plastic flow into desired shape
 Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
operations
Importance of Bulk Deformation
 In hot working, significant shape change can
be accomplished
 In cold working, strength is increased during
shape change
 Little or no waste - some operations are near
net shape or net shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent
machining
Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die
opening, thereby taking the shape of the
opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar
is reduced by pulling it through a die opening
 Rolling
Deformation process in which work thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls

Figure 19.1 The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

 The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them by
friction between workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its
cross section
 Types of Rolling

 Based on workpiece geometry :

 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of
a rectangular cross section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I‑beam
 Based on work temperature :
 Hot Rolling – most common due to the
large amount of deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet
and plate stock
 Rolled Products Made of Steel

Figure 19.2 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

 Diagram of Flat Rolling

Figure 19.3 Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses,
work velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
 Flat Rolling Terminology
Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d =t o −t f

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and

tf = final thickness
 Flat Rolling Terminology
Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of
starting stock thickness:
d
r =
to

where r = reduction
 Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section
rather than flat (rectangular)
 Accomplished by passing work through rolls
that have the reverse of desired shape
 Products include:
 Construction shapes such as I‑beams,
L‑beams, and U‑channels
 Rails for railroad tracks
 Round and square bars and rods
A rolling mill for hot
flat rolling. The
steel plate is seen
as the glowing
strip in lower left
corner (photo
courtesy of
Bethlehem Steel).
 Rolling Mills
 Equipment is massive and expensive
 Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high – two opposing rolls
 Three-high – work passes through rolls in
both directions
 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller
work rolls
 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on
smaller rolls
 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high
mills
 Two-High Rolling Mill

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2‑high

rolling mill.
 Three-High Rolling Mill

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (b) 3‑high

rolling mill.
 Four-High Rolling Mill

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (c) four‑high

rolling mill.
 Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill

 Tandem Rolling Mill

A series of rolling stands in sequence

Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (e)

tandem rolling mill.
 Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads
on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two dies
 Important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
 Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines
 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
 Higher production rates
 Better material utilization
 Stronger threads and better fatigue
resistance due to work hardening
 Thread Rolling

Figure 19.6 Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and
(2) end of cycle.
 Ring Rolling

Deformation process in which a thick‑walled ring of

smaller diameter is rolled into a thin‑walled ring of
larger diameter
 As thick‑walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
 Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings
 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires
for railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure
vessels, and rotating machinery
 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working
 Ring Rolling

Figure 19.7 Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase
the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process.
 Forging
Deformation process in which work is compressed
between two dies
 Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating
from about 5000 B C
 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting
rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet
engine turbine parts
 Also, basic metals industries use forging to
establish basic form of large parts that are
subsequently machined to final shape and size
Classification of Forging Operations
 Cold vs. hot forging:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due
to the significant deformation and the need
to reduce strength and increase ductility of
work metal
 Cold forging – advantage: increased
strength that results from strain hardening
 Impact vs. press forging:
 Forge hammer - applies an impact load
 Forge press - applies gradual pressure
 Types of Forging Dies

 Open‑die forging - work is compressed

between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow
laterally with minimum constraint
 Impression‑die forging - die contains cavity
or impression that is imparted to workpart
 Metal flow is constrained so that flash is
created
 Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
 No excess flash is created
 Open-Die Forging

Figure 19.9 Three types of forging: (a) open‑die forging.

 Impression-Die Forging

Figure 19.9 Three types of forging: (b) impression‑die forging.

 Flashless Forging

Figure 19.9 Three types of forging (c) flashless forging.

 Open‑Die Forging
Compression of workpart between two flat dies
 Similar to compression test when workpart has
cylindrical cross section and is compressed
along its axis
 Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
 Common names include upsetting or upset
forging
Open‑Die Forging with No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die
surfaces, then homogeneous deformation
occurs, so that radial flow is uniform throughout
workpart height and true strain is given by:
ho
ε = ln
h
where ho= starting height; and h = height at
some point during compression
 At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum
value
 Open-Die Forging with No Friction

Figure 19.10 Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart

under ideal conditions in an open‑die forging operation: (1) start of
process with workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final size.
 Open-Die Forging with Friction
 Friction between work and die surfaces
constrains lateral flow of work, resulting in
barreling effect
 In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at and near
die surfaces, which cools the metal and
increases its resistance to deformation
 Open-Die Forging with Friction

Figure 19.11 Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in

open‑die forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of
process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.
 Impression‑Die Forging

Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of

desired part shape
 Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die
cavity into small gap between die plates
 Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an
important function during compression:
 As flash forms, friction resists continued
metal flow into gap, constraining material to
fill die cavity
 In hot forging, metal flow is further
restricted by cooling against die plates
 Impression-Die Forging

Figure 19.14 Sequence in impression‑die forging: (1) just prior

to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression,
and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap
between die plates.
Impression‑Die Forging Practice
 Several forming steps often required, with
separate die cavities for each step
 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more
uniform deformation and desired
metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
 Final steps bring the part to final geometry
 Impression-die forging is often performed
manually by skilled operator under adverse
conditions
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of impression-die forging
compared to machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates
 Less waste of metal
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal
 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining often required to achieve
accuracies and features needed
 Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling
whose cavity does not allow for flash
 Starting workpart volume must equal die
cavity volume within very close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than
impression‑die forging
 Best suited to part geometries that are
simple and symmetrical
 Often classified as a precision forging
process
 Flashless Forging

Figure 19.17 Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with
workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final punch and die
closure.
Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
Apply impact load against workpart
 Two types:
 Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from
falling weight of a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram
by pressurized air or steam
 Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted
through anvil into floor of building
 Commonly used for impression-die forging
Figure 19.19 Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and
heating units at the right of the scene (photo courtesy of
Chambersburg Engineering Company).
 Drop Hammer Details

Figure 19.20 Diagram showing details of a drop hammer

for impression‑die forging.
 Forging Presses
 Apply gradual pressure to accomplish
compression operation
 Types:
 Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram
 Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates
ram
 Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
 Upsetting and Heading
Forging process used to form heads on nails,
bolts, and similar hardware products
 More parts produced by upsetting than any
other forging operation
 Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines
called headers or formers
 Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is
headed, then piece is cut to length
 For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then
used to form threads
 Upset Forging

Figure 19.22 An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt

or similar hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock
is fed to the stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the
stop is retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to
form the head.
 Heading (Upset Forging)

Figure 19.23 Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a)

heading a nail using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch,
(c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die, (e)
carriage bolt head formed by punch and die.
 Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a
workpiece radially inward to taper it as the
piece is fed into the dies
 Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod
stock
 Mandrel sometimes required to control shape
and size of internal diameter of tubular parts
 Swaging

Figure 19.24 Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies
rotate as they hammer the work In radial forging, the
workpiece rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as
they hammer the work.
 Trimming
Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart
in impression‑die forging
 Usually done while work is still hot, so a
separate trimming press is included at the
forging station
 Trimming can also be done by alternative
methods, such as grinding or sawing
 Trimming After Impression-Die Forging

Figure 19.29 Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash

after impression‑die forging.
 Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross‑sectional shape
 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
of a toothpaste tube
 In general, extrusion is used to produce long
parts of uniform cross sections
 Two basic types:
 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion
 Direct Extrusion

Figure 19.30 Direct extrusion.

 Comments on Direct Extrusion
 Also called forward extrusion
 As ram approaches die opening, a small
portion of billet remains that cannot be forced
through die opening
 This extra portion, called the butt, must be
separated from extrudate by cutting it just
beyond the die exit
 Starting billet cross section usually round
 Final shape of extrudate is determined by die
opening
 Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

Figure 19.31 (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi‑hollow

cross sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi‑hollow cross sections.
 Indirect Extrusion

Figure 19.32 Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid

cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.
Comments on Indirect Extrusion
 Also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
 Lower rigidity of hollow ram
 Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it
exits die
 Advantages of Extrusion
 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
 Limitation: part cross section must be
uniform throughout length
 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
 In some operations, little or no waste of material
 Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above
its recrystallization temperature
 Reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions
and more complex shapes
 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
 The term impact extrusion is used to
indicate high speed cold extrusion
 Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

Ao
rx =
Af

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional

area of the starting billet; and Af = final cross-
sectional area of the extruded section
 Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
 Extrusion Die Features

Figure 19.35 (a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b)

effect of die angle on ram force.
 Comments on Die Angle
 Low die angle - surface area is large, which
increases friction at die‑billet interface
 Higher friction results in larger ram force
 Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow
during reduction
 Turbulence increases ram force required
 Optimum angle depends on work material,
billet temperature, and lubrication
 Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die
 Simplest cross section shape is circular die
orifice
 Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
 As cross section becomes more complex,
higher pressure and greater force are required
 Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure
can be assessed by means the die shape
factor Kx
 Complex Cross Section

Figure 19.36 A complex extruded cross section for a heat

sink (photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)
 Extrusion Presses
 Either horizontal or vertical
 Horizontal more common
 Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven,
which is especially suited to semi‑continuous
direct extrusion of long sections
 Mechanical drives - often used for cold
extrusion of individual parts
 Wire and Bar Drawing
Cross‑section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled
through die in drawing (it is pushed through in
extrusion)
 Although drawing applies tensile stress,
compression also plays a significant role since
metal is squeezed as it passes through die
opening
 Wire and Bar Drawing

Figure 19.40 Drawing of bar, rod, or wire.

 Area Reduction in Drawing
Change in size of work is usually given by area
reduction:
Ao − Af
r =
Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao =

original area of work; and Ar = final work
 Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing
 Difference between bar drawing and wire
drawing is stock size
 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod
stock
 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire
sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are
possible
 Although the mechanics are the same, the
methods, equipment, and even terminology are
different
 Drawing Practice and Products
 Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross
sections
 Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences,
coat hangers, and shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and
springs
 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging,
and other processes
 Bar Drawing
 Accomplished as a single‑draft operation ‑ the
stock is pulled through one die opening
 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a
straight cylinder
 Requires a batch type operation
 Bar Drawing Bench

Figure 19.41 Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars.
 Wire Drawing
 Continuous drawing machines consisting of
multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated
by accumulating drums
 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force
to draw wire stock through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so
desired total reduction is achieved by the
series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies
to relieve work hardening
Continuous Wire Drawing

Figure 19.42 Continuous drawing of wire.

 Features of a Draw Die
 Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to
prevent scoring of work and die
 Approach - cone‑shaped region where drawing
occurs
 Bearing surface - determines final stock size
 Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back
relief angle (half‑angle) of about 30°
 Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
 Draw Die Details

Figure 19.43 Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire.

Preparation of Work for Drawing
 Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
 Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface
and draw die
 Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to
allow insertion through draw die