1.

0 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND

CONDITIONING.
1
1.1. BASICS
Most modern control equipment work on the following
standard signal ranges.
Electric 4 to 20mA
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
Digital Standards
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10V.
The advantage of having a standard range is that all equipment
are sold ready calibrated. This means that the minimum signal
(Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on) is
represented by 4mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum signal is
represented by 20mA or 1.0 bar.
2
The primary transducer will not produce these standard
ranges so the purpose of processing and conditioning is
usually to convert the output into the standard range.The vast
array of instrumentation and control equipment available
uses many forms of signal. Here is a summary:
ELECTRICAL voltage, current, digital
MECHANICAL force and movement
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC pressure and flow
OPTICAL high speed digital transmission
RADIO analogue and digital transmission
ULTRA VIOLET similar application to radio over short
ranges.
Processing may do the following things
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Change the level or value of the signal (e.g. Voltage level)
Change the signal from one form to another (e.g. Electrical
to pneumatic and vice-versa)
Change the operating characteristic with respect to time
Convert analogue and digital signal from one form to the
other.
Now considering those processes which change the level or
value of the signal.
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1.2.1 Amplifiers
Amplifiers may amplify VOLTAGE, CURRENT, or BOTH in which
case it may be a Power Amplifier. Amplifier gain may be
expressed as a ratio or in decibels.

The letter, W indicates that it
refers to power gain.

The gain in dbW is given by
Gain(dbW) = 10 log10 Power Output
Power Input
In practice, an amplifier generates some noise and the input
and output terminals have a resistance that governs the ratio
of current to voltage.
5
Fig 3.1
Since electric power into a resistive load is given as
P = I R = = V /R
Then
Gain (dbV) = 10log10 .V out/V in = 20 log10 Vout/Vin
The letter V indicates it as a voltage gain ( units for voltage gain is
dbV)
EXAMPLE
Calculate the gain of a voltage amplifier with an input of 2mV and
output of 10V

6
2
2
SOLUTION
Voltage gain, G = 20log10 10/0.02
= 73.98dbV

Differential Amplifiers
These have two inputs and the difference between them is
amplified. The electronic symbol is shown in fig. 1.4

Voltage=20log10 Vout
V2 V1
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EXAMPLE
For the differential amplifier shown below determine the output
voltage if the gain is 15db.

SOLUTION
Input = 5-2 = 3V
G = 15 = 20log10 (Vout/3)
15/20 = 0.75 = log10 (Vout/3)
Antilog 0.75 = 5.623 = (Vout/3)
Vout = 16.87V



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1.2.2 Attenuators
Sometimes a signal is too big and must be reduced by
attenuating it. Electrical signals are attenuated with resistors
which dissipate the electric power as heat. The gain of an
attenuator in db. is negative.
The term amplification is often used when the level of a
signal is increased but not the power. Strictly speaking such
devices should be called Transformers. For example, an AC.
Electrical transformer may increase the voltage but not the
power. We have voltage amplifiers and current amplifiers
which do not necessarily change the power level.
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1.2.3. Transformers
Electrical (Review)
Many devices only change the level of a signal without
changing the power. A voltage
amplifier is an example. An
electrical transformer for
alternating voltages basically
consists of two windings, a
primary and a secondary.
10
The coils are wound on a magnetic core. As learnt before, the
flux depends upon the number of Turns, T1 and the same flux
cuts the secondary. The e.m.f. in the secondary will depend on
the number of turns T2.
It follows that
V1/V2 = T1/T2
In an ideal transformer there is no energy loss and so the
power in and power out are equal. V1i1 = V2i2. It follows that if
the voltage is stepped down, the current is stepped up and
vice-versa.

Mechanical
Mechanical transformers are levers and gear boxes which
change movement, force, speed and torque but not the
power.
11
They are used in many instruments (eg. A mechanical
pressure gauge and the nozzle -flapper system, etc).









The gear ratio is in direct proportion to the pitch circle
diameters (mean diameters) or number of teeth on each
wheel.
12
The lever movements at the ends are in direct proportion to
the length on each side of the fulcrum.

Hydraulic
The hydraulic pressure amplifier shown below increases the
pressure in direct proportion to the area of the pistons. It is
called an intensifier.
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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. An electrical transformer must produce 12 V a.c. output from 240 V a.c.
input. The primary has 2000 turns.
How many turns are needed on the secondary? (Answer 100)

2. A pressure intensifier must increase the pressure from 10 bar to 100 bar.
What must be the ratio of the
piston diameters? (Answer 3.162/1)

3. A lever must magnify the movement of a mechanism from 0.1 mm to 2
mm. What must be the ratio of the
lengths either side of the fulcrum? (Answer 20/1)

4. A pair of simple gears must magnify the rotation angle by 4/1 many must
there be on the large gear? (Answer 80 teeth)
1.3. Signal Converters
Signal converters change the signal from one form to another.
Where ever possible, these are the standard inputs and
output ranges. Normally we show them on a block diagram as
a box with an input and output with a label to say what it
does. Figure 3.8 shows some examples. All these examples
have opposite versions, i.e. I/P, P/M, V/f, D/A etc.
Most signal converters have two adjustments.
14
15
Nozzle Flapper and Differential Pressure
Cells
The nozzle-flapper system is widely used in Differential
Pressure (D.P.) cells. The form shown below converts
differential pressure (e.g. from a differential pressure flow
meter) into a standard pneumatic signal. This is widely used in
the control of air-operated valves
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In operation, the bellows respond to the differential pressure
and moves the lever. This moves the flapper towards or away
from the nozzle. The air supply passes through a restrictor
(orifice) and leaks out of the nozzle.
The output pressure hence depends on how close the flapper
is to the end of the nozzle. The range of the instrument is
adjusted by moving the pivot and the zero position is adjusted
by moving the relative position of the flapper and nozzle.
This system is used in a variety of forms. Instead of bellows, a
bourdon tube might be used and this is operated by an
expansion type temperature sensor to produce a
temperature-pneumatic signal converter.
17
REGENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
WEEKEND SESSION ROQUAH CAMPUS
LEVEL 400 3
RD
TRIMESTER
2011/2012 ACADEMIC SESSION

COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE TITLE: INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
COURSE CODE: SIEL 4613
Overall Course Objective(s) : The student will be able to understand and
appreciate the principles underlying the
various instrumentation and process control
applications in Industries .

Teaching Method: Power point presentation, quizzes,
assignments and class test.

Contact: Ing.Dr. P.K. Amissah
Senior Lecturer/HOD
COURSE DESCRIPTION
SIEL 4613:- Industrial Instrumentation and Control [ 2 0 3]
Introduction to process control; elements of the process loop;
controller principles: hydraulic, pneumatic, electric and
electronic controllers; digital control principles; final control
elements; control loop characteristics, complex control
system; fundamentals of fluidics, fluidic logic and fluidic
devices; industrial telemetry techniques, pneumatic
indicators, receivers, transmitters, indicating controllers;
electro-pneumatic converters.
TRIMESTER SCHEDULE
9-10 DECEMBER 2011 WK.1.SCHOOL RE-OPENS
20-21 JANUARY 2012 WK.5.QUIZ
3-4 FEBRUAYRY 2012 ..WK..7/8 ..MID-TRIMESTER EXAMS
10-11 FEBRUARY 2012
16-17 MARCH 2012 . WK. 13/14/15 END OF TRIM EXAMS
23-24 MARCH 2012 /30-31 .
6-7 APRIL 2012 VACATION PERIOD

13-14 APRIL 2012 .SCHOOL RE-OPENS