Chapter 2: Computer-System Structures

Operating System Concepts

Computer System Operation
I/O Structure
Storage Structure
Storage Hierarchy
Hardware Protection
General System Architecture
Computer-System Architecture
Operating System Concepts
Computer-System Operation
Operating System Concepts
I/O devices and the CPU can execute
concurrently.
Each device controller is in charge of a particular
device type.
Each device controller has a local buffer.
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from
local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished
its operation by causing an interrupt.
Common Functions of Interrupts
Operating System Concepts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service
routine generally, through the interrupt vector,
which contains the addresses of all the service
routines.
Interrupt architecture must save the address of
the interrupted instruction.
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another
interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost
interrupt.
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused
either by an error or a user request.
An operating system is interrupt driven.
Interrupt Handling
Operating System Concepts
The operating system preserves the state of the
CPU by storing registers and the program
counter.
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling
vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what
action should be taken for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Time Line For a Single Process Doing Output
Operating System Concepts
I/O Structure
Operating System Concepts
After I/O starts, control returns to user program
only upon I/O completion.
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next
interrupt
Wait loop (contention for memory access).
At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time,
no simultaneous I/O processing.
After I/O starts, control returns to user program
without waiting for I/O completion.
System call request to the operating system to
allow user to wait for I/O completion.
Device-status table contains entry for each I/O
device indicating its type, address, and state.
Operating system indexes into I/O device table to
determine device status and to modify table entry
to include interrupt.

Two I/O Methods
Operating System Concepts
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Device-Status Table
Operating System Concepts
Direct Memory Access Structure
Operating System Concepts
Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
information at close to memory speeds.
Device controller transfers blocks of data from
buffer storage directly to main memory without
CPU intervention.
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather
than the one interrupt per byte.
Storage Structure
Operating System Concepts
Main memory only large storage media that the
CPU can access directly.
Secondary storage extension of main memory
that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
Magnetic disks rigid metal or glass platters
covered with magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which
are subdivided into sectors.
The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer.
Moving-Head Disk Mechanism
Operating System Concepts
Storage Hierarchy
Operating System Concepts
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching copying information into faster storage
system; main memory can be viewed as a last
cache for secondary storage.
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Operating System Concepts
Caching
Operating System Concepts
Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-
accessed data.
Requires a cache management policy.
Caching introduces another level in storage
hierarchy. This requires data that is
simultaneously stored in more than one level to
be consistent.
Migration of A From Disk to Register
Operating System Concepts
Hardware Protection
Operating System Concepts
Dual-Mode Operation
I/O Protection
Memory Protection
CPU Protection
Dual-Mode Operation
Operating System Concepts
Sharing system resources requires operating
system to ensure that an incorrect program
cannot cause other programs to execute
incorrectly.
Provide hardware support to differentiate between
at least two modes of operations.
1. User mode execution done on behalf of a user.
2. Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system
mode) execution done on behalf of operating
system.
Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.)
Operating System Concepts
Mode bit added to computer hardware to
indicate the current mode: monitor (0) or user
(1).
When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware
switches to monitor mode.
Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode.
monitor user
Interrupt/fault
set user mode
I/O Protection
Operating System Concepts
All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.
Must ensure that a user program could never
gain control of the computer in monitor mode
(I.e., a user program that, as part of its execution,
stores a new address in the interrupt vector).
Use of A System Call to Perform
I/O
Operating System Concepts
Memory Protection
Operating System Concepts
Must provide memory protection at least for the
interrupt vector and the interrupt service routines.
In order to have memory protection, add two
registers that determine the range of legal
addresses a program may access:
Base register holds the smallest legal physical
memory address.
Limit register contains the size of the range
Memory outside the defined range is protected.
Use of A Base and Limit Register
Operating System Concepts
Hardware Address Protection
Operating System Concepts
Hardware Protection
Operating System Concepts
When executing in monitor mode, the operating
system has unrestricted access to both monitor
and users memory.
The load instructions for the base and limit
registers are privileged instructions.
CPU Protection
Operating System Concepts
Timer interrupts computer after specified period
to ensure operating system maintains control.
Timer is decremented every clock tick.
When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt
occurs.
Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.
Time also used to compute the current time.
Load-timer is a privileged instruction.
Network Structure
Operating System Concepts
Local Area Networks (LAN)
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Local Area Network Structure
Operating System Concepts
Wide Area Network Structure
Operating System Concepts