Advanced Surveying, EDM,

Remote Sensing
Unit V
Aim of Surveying
Importance given to determining Precise Position of an
entity, with more ease and speed.
Thus, the need to determine the coordinates or location of a
point resulted in the field of surveying.
Techniques
Conventional Surveying Techniques: Chain, Compass, Theodolite.
Advanced Surveying Techniques: Remote Sensing, Global Positioning
System (GPS), and use of Geographic Information System (GIS).
Conventional Surveying
Chain
Theodolite
Dumpy Level
Plane Table
Uses of Conventional Surveying
Chain Surveying:
Used for taking linear measurements in the field.
one-dimensional measurements.
Compass:
Used for measuring directions of survey lines.
Theodolite:
Used for measuring angles of survey lines - both horizontal and vertical
angles.
2-Dimensional measurements.
Dumpy level:
Used to (i) determine elevations of given points with respect to a given or
assumed datum; (ii) establish points at a given elevation with respect to a
given or assumed datum.
one-Dimensional measurement.
Plane tabling:
graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting
done simultaneously.




Characteristics of Conventional Surveying
Suitable for small to moderate areas of extent.
Intervisibility between survey stations required.
Therefore, range of work gets limited.
Can only be used during day time
Cannot be used in all weather conditions.
Requires more man power to accomplish the task.
Takes more time to cover larger areas, i.e., time consuming
process and therefore, owing to time limitation, the no. of
points to be surveyed gets limited.
Pressure of finances.

One or two dimensional measurements taken using above
instruments. 3-D is however, not possible.
less precise and accurate work.
Collection of data or measurements are manual, i.e.,
entered in the field.
Coordinates/Elevation of stations has to be manually
calculated from the observations collected in the field.
For example, latitude and longitude of a station is obtained
mathematically from the horizontal angles observed using normal
theodolite. Similarly, level.
Storage/retrieval of data not possible.
Used for Plane surveying.

Characteristics of Conventional Surveying
Advanced Surveying
To overcome the limitations of conventional instruments.
important advanced surveying instruments/
technology include
Electronic distance measuring device (EDM)
Total station
Automatic, digital level
Remote sensing
Photogrammetry
GIS
GPS

Conventional Instruments Advanced surveying instruments
1. Suitable for small to moderate areas of extent.
2. Intervisibility between survey stations required.
3. Can only be used during day time and cannot be
used in all weather conditions.
4. Collection of data or measurements are manual,
i.e., entered in the field and thus, Storage/retrieval
of data not possible.
5. Requires more man power to accomplish the task
and Takes more time to cover larger areas, i.e.,
time consuming process.
6. Coordinates/Elevation of stations has to be
manually calculated from the observations
collected in the field.
7. One or two dimensional measurements taken
using above instruments. 3-D is however, not
possible.
8. These above instruments are used for less precise
and accurate work.
1. Suitable for areas ranging from small to large to
very large areas depending on the type of
instrument used.
2. Intervisibility between stations not required.
3. Can be used any time of the day and not affected
by weather.
4. Automated data collection involved. These
instruments have the capability of
storing/retrieving the collected data.
5. Large amount of data can be collected and thus,
less time consuming than conventional
instruments.
6. These instruments have the ability to download
data directly into a computer without human
errors and the coordinates, horizontal distance,
height difference etc are calculated automatically
within the instruments.
7. Instruments have the advantage of providing 3D
measurements.
8. These instruments are used for precise surveys
like topographic surveys in urban regions and in
huge construction sites; for structures of national
importance like dams, bridges etc.
Working Principle
work on the principle of generation, reflection and
subsequent reception of electromagnetic waves or
radiations (EMR).
This is what makes these advanced surveying
instruments different from conventional surveying
instruments.

Distance Measurement
Distance is one of the most basic engineering measurements.
For a long time, distances were measured using Direct
distance measurement (DDM) involving the use of chain or
tape;
or Optical distance measurement (ODM) by the use of
theodolites, tacheometry etc.
However, DDM is unsuitable in difficult terrain and some
times, impossible when obstructions occur.
This was overcome by ODM, but here the range of
measurement got limited to 15 m to 150 m and the accuracy
being limited from 1 in 1000 to 1 in 10000.
The introduction of Electromagnetic (or electronic) Distance
Measurement (EDM) overcame these problems by providing
accuracies 1 in 10
5
, over ranges upto 100 km.

EDM
EDM involves measurement of distance using
electronic methods.
The distances are measured using instruments that
rely on propagation, reflection and subsequent
reception of electromagnetic waves.
This kind of instruments is used for geodetic surveys
where high precision in the measurement of
distances is required.
Introduced in 1950s evolved into total stations
today

Principle of working of EDM
Rely on EMR propogation and its
characteristics.


Distance measurement using EDM
(1) By measuring transit times.
Distance measured based on time it takes for the EMR to
leave the EDM (T1) strike the object come back to
EDM (T2).
Distance/Range = (T2 T1)*velocity of wave
2

Reflector
Distance measurement using EDM
(2) By phase comparison
since the speed of light (c) is very high, the time interval t
would need to be measured extremely accurately.
Most commercial EDM fail to measure transit time
accurately.




Thus, L = (m + p) wherem is an integer number of whole
wavelengths, p is a fraction of a wavelength

1 2 3 4
5 6
7 8 9
10 11 12
p

A
B
L
p = phase difference in degrees x
360
= (
2

1
) x
360
Where
1
= phase of the wave when being
transmitted at A

2
= phase of the wave when
received at B

Distance measurement using EDM
EDM
l l l
l
l
l l P
Types of EDM
split into 3 categories depending on the range:
Short range
enable distance measurements less than 3 km.
The accuracy is (0.2 + 1 mm/km).
Example: Distomats.
Medium range less than 25 km.
These have a range of 5 km in daylight, and about 25 km in the
night by using mercury lamp.
The accuracy is (5 + 1 mm/km).
Example: Geodimeter
Long range
less than 100 km.
The accuracy is (10 + 3 mm/km).
Examples: Tellurometer.

Classified based on wavelength of wave.
Visible light
under the category of Medium range instruments.
The measuring set consists of an active transmitter
(transmitting component) and receiver (receiving
component) at one end of the survey line to be measured
(i.e., EDM instrument) and a passive prism reflector at the
other end.
Range up to 25 km, with an accuracy of (10 mm + 2
mm/km).
Visible light, lasers used as carrier waves
Distance reduced by visibility.


Types of EDM
Infrared
Infrared or laser light utilize transmitter at one end and reflecting
prism at other
Some are reflectorless
Long range 10-20 km
Medium range 3-10 km
Short range 0.5-3 km
suitable for most of the civil engineering works.
very light and compact and these can be mounted on a theodolite to
give what is popularly called a Total Station. This enables angles and
distances to be measured simultaneously at the site.
Limited to line of sight, i.e., intervisibility between station points is
most important.
Limited by rain, fog, and other airborne particles.


Types of EDM
Microwave
utilize receiver/transmitter at both ends of line
Range up to 100 km to a maximum of 150 km.
Typical maximum ranges for microwave instruments are
from 30 80 km with an accuracy of (15 mm +5 mm/km).
Wavelength 3 cm
Not limited to line of sight
Unaffected by visibility
Can penetrate fog, haze etc.
This system is expensive as two instruments are required
for distance measurement, in comparison to the other
instruments which require only one instrument and a
prism reflector for distance measurement.

Types of EDM
Evolution of EDM Instruments
Got its start in 1948 with Swiss device using
visible light (range=40km only at night)


Microwaves used in 1957 (range=80km)




Infra-red, IR, devices are common today
Current EDM Instruments
So called total-station instruments package a digital theodolite
(for measuring azimuth and altitude) with an EDM, data storage
device, and often a modem for transmitting data from the field.
The most common instruments use a pulse of 2 to 4 AM
frequencies ranging from 150kHz to 15MHz.
This range of frequencies have corresponding half-wavelengths
of 1.0km to 10m, respectively.
Low High
Accuracy 5mm + 10ppm 1mm + 1ppm
Range 1 km 5 km
Cost $10,000 $40,000
Data Storage none 7500 pts.
Magnification 10X 30X
Run-time 3 hrs. 6 hrs.
Digital level
TOTAL STATION
TOTAL STATION with GPS
Advantages of EDM
No need to walk the distance to be measured.
Obstacles No problem Distances can be taken
across them.
Once levelled, it can produce readings every few
seconds.
Less labours required.
Can measure short and long distances.
No issues of tape or chain corrections involved.
Portable, small, equipped with direct readout
capability.
Downloading facility available , thus eliminating error
associated with manual recording.
Automated data collection involved.
Fast digital data collection, thus saving time of
observation collection.
Greater accuracy
3D measurements
Coordinates, horizontal distances etc calculated
authomatically.
Advantages of EDM
Atmosphere correction models not present or not
calibrated properly.
Being electronic restricts the user to use them in
environmental conditions.
Batteries involved which need to be powered, thus
no power, no measurement.
High quality instruments are expensive.
Disadvantages of EDM
Remote Sensing
Most prominent technique of collecting information from a
distance. The data collected from a distance is called
remotely sensed data.
Indirect method of measuring linear distance.
Definitions:
It is the science of acquiring information about the earths
surface without actually being in physical contact with the
surface.
It can also be defined as the science or technology by
which the characteristics of objects of interest can be
identified, measured or analyzed without direct contact.
Best example of Remote Sensing is the human eye.


Source of Remote Sensing data is the Electromagnetic radiation reflected
or emitted from an object.

Remote Sensing employ EMR and to a great extent relies on the
interaction of EMR with the matter. It refers to the sensing of EMR, which
is reflected, scattered or emitted from the object.

Why does a leaf look green? Its because the chlorophyll in the leaf absorbs
blue and red spectra and reflects the green spectrum.

Thus, Each object has its own unique and different characteristics of
reflection or emission, depending upon different environmental
conditions. Every object will reflect out energy in some specific
wavelength.

The main principle underlying Remote Sensing is All matter reflects,
absorbs, penetrates and emits EMR in a unique way. This unique
characteristic of matter is called its Spectral Characteristics.

Principle of Remote Sensing
From laws of nature, mainly 3 forms of interactions taking place based on
which we are able to identify objects present on the surface of the earth.
They are
1. Absorption (A)
2. Transmission (T)
3. Reflection (R)


What you are interested is only the final reflected energy from the matter
after all the above processes.
The proportion of each of the above will vary depending on the
wavelength of energy incident and the material, composition as well as
the condition of the matter.
Depending on that, matter will reflect EMR at a particular wavelength,
which is thereby captured to help in identifying the matter from a set of
several objects.
Eg: How are you able to identify different coloured chalks.



Principle of Remote Sensing (Continued)
Device to detect the EMR reflected or emitted from an object is a Sensor. Eg:
Cameras, Scanners, Radar.
Vehicle to carry the sensor is called a platform. Eg. Aircrafts or satellites.
Remote Sensing includes studying aerial photography and satellite imagery to
identify objects.
Now-a-days, most natural resource mapping is done using remote sensing.
Aerial photography has been used to produce topographic maps such as
forest maps, geological maps, land use maps and soil maps; detailed city
maps. (easy for upgradation; these are formed fast).
Satellite-based systems can measure phenomena that change continuously
over time and cover large and inaccessible areas.
Remote Sensing is similar to normal study of photographs, with the only
difference that large scale photographs and images are analyzed.


Concepts of Remote Sensing (Continued)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Although Visible light is the most popular form of EMR, other forms also
exist, that help in identifying objects that visible light cannot achieve.
That many wave forms including the Visible light form part of what is
known as Electromagnetic Spectrum.

36
Electromagnetic Spectrum (Continued)
EMR regions used in Remote sensing are UV (0.3 0.4m), visible light (0.4
0.7m), near infrared and thermal infrared (0.7 - 14m) and microwave
(1mm 1m).

Region Wave length (m) Principal Application
(a) Visible Region
Blue 0.45 0.52 Soil and Vegetation discrimination, Coastal studies
Green 0.52 0.60 Rock and soil discrimination, Water Turbidity
studies
Red 0.63 0.69 Plant species discrimination
(b)Infrared Region
Near IR 0.76 2.35 Vegetation discrimination, Delineation of Water
features, Vegetation and Soil moisture content,
Geological features
Thermal IR 3 14 Fires, Volcanoes studies, Thermal Sensing
(c) Microwave 1mm 1m Distribution of snow, Water vapour, Distribution of
rain, rain type
Wavelength regions and their application in Remote Sensing
Spectral Signatures
All objects on the surface of the earth have spectral signatures.

Spectral signature is the distinctive set of distinguishable characteristics of
the object.

It is defined by quantifying the reflectance characteristics of earth surface
features by measuring the portion of incident energy that is reflected.
This is known as spectral reflectance, given by the expression:
() in percentage = E
R
() / E
I
()

All matter have their unique spectral reflectance. Based on this, objects
are identified on a photograph or image and this forms the basis of
Remote Sensing.

38
Spectral Signatures: Spectral reflectance curves
The spectral reflectances are presented graphically in spectral reflectance
curves, showing the relationship of EM spectrum wavelength with the
associated percent reflectance for any given material.
Basic reasons for Application
Represents a larger area of the earth in a photographic view
Facilitates the study of objects and their relationships
Can provide 3-D view of the object
Characteristics not visible to human eye can be transformed into images
Provides a permanent record of an object at any moment of time
The remote sensing is essential for planning and management. It will help
to change the age-old conventional system
Remote sensing should be used invariably for policy decision like
regularization of built up areas, land acquisition, roads lay out
It is possible to study the existing land use of the area so that future
proposals for the area do not clash with existing situation.

41
Types of Remote Sensing
Based on Type of energy source
Passive Remote Sensing
Source is the sun.
Makes use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted EMR from
natural sources.
Active Remote Sensing
Makes use of sensors that detect reflected responses from objects that
are irradiated from artificially generated energy source (Eg. Radar).
Based on Wavelength regions
Visible and reflective IR Remote Sensing
Source is the Sun.
Makes use of sensors that are sensitive to the visible and IR region of the
EM spectrum.
Depends on reflectance of objects on the ground surface, i.e., influenced
by solar reflection than emission from the ground.
Affected by atmospheric obstacles like dust, smoke, clouds etc.
Cannot be used in the night.

42
Thermal IR Remote Sensing
The source of radiant energy used in Thermal IR remote sensing is the
object itself.
Under normal temperature conditions, every objects emits radiation.
Thus, this remote sensing makes use of sensors sensitive to thermal
energy, i.e., emission from grounds surface dominates.
Can be used in the night.
Microwave Remote Sensing
Used to measure MW radiation emitted from objects.
High penetration power, thus, Less affected by atmospheric obstacles,
scattering, cloud etc.
Very useful in studying studying snow, rain, soil moisture as it cannot
penetrate them.
It can help in determining the exact location of storm centres, measuring
the speed of the storm, and notifying the public of areas of potentially
severe weather.
All weather remote sensing.
Example: Precipitation radar, Doppler radar.



Types of Remote Sensing (Continued)