Chapter 2

GAS POWER CYCLES

Slides
by Engr Chua YL
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Learning Objective(s)
Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working
fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.
Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.
Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel,
Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with
regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration.
22/05/2014
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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely
but is made up totally of internally reversible processes
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the highest
thermal efficiency of all heat engines operating between
the same temperature levels. Unlike ideal cycles, they
are totally reversible, and unsuitable as a realistic model.
22/05/2014
Thermal efficiency of heat engines
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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE
ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES
22/05/2014
The analysis of many complex
processes can be reduced to a
manageable level by utilizing
some idealizations.
Modeling is a powerful
engineering tool that provides
great insight and simplicity at
the expense of some loss in
accuracy.
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The idealizations and simplifications in the
analysis of power cycles:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in
pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes
take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well insulated,
and heat transfer through them is negligible.
Care should be exercised in the
interpretation of the results from ideal
cycles.
On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the
area enclosed by the process curve
represents the net work of the cycle.
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the
area enclosed by the cyclic curve to
the area under the heat-addition
process curve represents the thermal
efficiency of the cycle. Any
modification that increases the ratio
of these two areas will also increase
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS
VALUE IN ENGINEERING
P-v and T-s diagrams of a
Carnot cycle.
A steady-flow Carnot engine.
The Carnot cycle is consists of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic
expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic
compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal
efficiency increases with an increase in the average
temperature at which heat is supplied to the system
or with a decrease in the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the system.
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AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to
be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Nomenclature for reciprocating engines.
Spark-ignition (SI) engines
Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Compression ratio
Mean effective
pressure
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
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Schematic of a two-stroke
reciprocating engine.
The two-stroke engines are
generally less efficient than their
four-stroke counterparts but
they are relatively simple and
inexpensive, and they have high
power-to-weight and power-to-
volume ratios
T-s
diagram of
the ideal
Otto cycle
Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
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Thermal efficiency of the ideal
Otto cycle as a function of
compression ratio (k = 1.4).
The thermal efficiency of the Otto
cycle increases with the specific heat
ratio k of the working fluid.
In SI engines,
the
compression
ratio is limited
by
autoignition
or engine
knock.
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Example 1.1
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the
beginning of the compression process, air is at 100kPa
and 17C, and 800kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air
during the constant volume heat addition process,
Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with
temperature, determine
a) The maximum temperature and pressure that occur
during the cycle
b) The net work output
c) The thermal efficiency, and
d) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.
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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced
by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed
during the compression process.
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of auto
ignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines can be
designed to operate at much higher compression ratios
than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.
1-2 isentropic
compression
2-3 constant-
volume heat
addition
3-4 isentropic
expansion
4-1 constant-
volume heat
rejection.
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Thermal
efficiency of
the ideal Diesel
cycle as a
function of
compression
and cutoff
ratios (k=1.4).
Cutoff
ratio
for the same compression ratio
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P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle.
Dual cycle: A more realistic ideal cycle
model for modern, high-speed
compression ignition engine.
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Example 1.2
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a
compression ratio of 18 and a cut-off ratio of 2. At the
beginning of the compression process, the working fluid
is at 100kPa, 27C and 1917cm3. Utilizing the cold air
standard assumptions, determine
a) The temperature and pressure of air at the end of each
process,
b) The net work output and the thermal efficiency, and
c) The mean effective pressure
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BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
An open-cycle gas-turbine engine. A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
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T-s and P-v diagrams for
the ideal Brayton cycle.
Pressure
ratio
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle as a
function of the
pressure ratio.
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For fixed values of T
min
and T
max
, the net
work of the Brayton cycle first increases
with the pressure ratio, then reaches a
maximum at r
p
= (T
max
/T
min
)
k/[2(k - 1)]
, and
finally decreases.
The fraction of the turbine work
used to drive the compressor is
called the back work ratio.
The two major application areas of gas-
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion
and electric power generation.
The highest temperature in the cycle is
limited by the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand. This
also limits the pressure ratios that can be
used in the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the
necessary oxidant for the combustion of
the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to
keep the temperature of various
components within safe limits. An airfuel
ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.
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Example 1.3
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton
cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is
at 300K at the compressor inlet and 1300K at the turbine
inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions, determine
a) The gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and
the turbine,
b) The back work ratio, and
c) The thermal efficiency
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Development of Gas Turbines
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components (turbines,
compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating).
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine
Cycles from Idealized Ones
The deviation of an actual gas-
turbine cycle from the ideal Brayton
cycle as a result of irreversibilities.
Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and
compressors, pressure drops, heat losses
Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor
and turbine
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Example 1.4
Assuming a compressor efficiency of 80% and a turbine
efficiency of 85%, determine
a) The back work ratio,
b) The thermal efficiency, and
c) The turbine exit temperature of the gas-turbine cycle
discussed in Example 1.3
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THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
REGENERATION
A gas-turbine engine with regenerator
T-s diagram of a Brayton
cycle with regeneration.
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust
gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than
the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor
can be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow
heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since less fuel is used for the same
work output.
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T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle
with regeneration.
Effectiveness of
regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-air
standard assumptions
Under cold-air standard
assumptions
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle with and
without
regeneration.
The thermal efficiency depends
on the ratio of the minimum to
maximum temperatures as well
as the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective at
lower pressure ratios and low
minimum-to-maximum
temperature ratios.
Can regeneration be
used at high
pressure ratios?
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Example 1.5
Determine the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine
described in Example 1.4 if a generator having
effectiveness of 80% is installed.
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THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
INTERCOOLING, REHEATING,
AND REGENERATION
A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with intercooling, two-stage expansion with
reheating, and regeneration and its T-s diagram.
For minimizing work input to
compressor and maximizing
work output from turbine
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Comparison
of work inputs
to a single-
stage
compressor
(1AC) and a
two-stage
compressor
with
intercooling
(1ABD).
Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas
between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the compression
process in stages and cooling the gas in between. This keeps the specific volume as low
as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as
high as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration. Why?
As the number of compression and expansion
stages increases, the gas-turbine cycle with
intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
approaches the Ericsson cycle.
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Example 1.6
An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of
compression and two stages of expansion has an overall
pressure ratio of 8. Air enters each stage of the
compressor at 300K and each stage of the turbine at
1300K. Determine the back work ratio and the thermal
efficiency of this gas turbine cycle assuming
a) No regenerator and
b) An ideal regenerator with 100% effectiveness.

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Summary
Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
Air-standard sssumptions
An overview of reciprocating engines
Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines
Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
The Brayton cycle with regeneration
The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration