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Meiliza
Ekayanti
(3325095042)
Teguh Permana
(3325100156)
Imanuelle Orchidea
(3325102413)

(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Genetic material of cells
GENES units of genetic material that
CODES FOR A SPECIFIC TRAIT

Called NUCLEIC ACIDS

DNA is made up of repeating molecules
called NUCLEOTIDES


DNA stands for deoxyribose nucleic acid
This chemical substance is present in the nucleus
of all cells in all living organisms
DNA controls all the chemical changes which
take place in cells
The kind of cell which is formed, (muscle, blood,
nerve etc) is controlled by DNA
The kind of organism which is produced (buttercup,
giraffe, herring, human etc) is controlled by DNA
DNA
2
DNA Components
Nitrogen
bases
Phospate ions
Carbohydrate
They are definitely
inanimate compounds.
DNA is a very large molecule made up of a long
chain of sub-units
The sub-units are called nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of
a sugar called deoxyribose
a phosphate group -PO
4
and
an organic base
DNA molecule 3
DNA Nucleotide

O
O=P-O
O
Phosphate
Group
N
Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or T)
CH2
O
C
1
C
4
C
3
C
2
5
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
A HISTORY OF DNA
Discovery of the DNA double helix

A. Frederick Griffith Discovers that a factor
in diseased bacteria can transform harmless
bacteria into deadly bacteria (1928)
B. Rosalind Franklin - X-ray photo of DNA.
(1952)
C. Watson and Crick - described the
DNA molecule from Franklins X-ray.
(1953)
SEE p. 292-293
Watson & Crick proposed


DNA had specific pairing between the
nitrogen bases:
ADENINE THYMINE
CYTOSINE - GUANINE

DNA was made of 2 long stands of
nucleotides arranged in a specific
way called the Complementary Rule
Ribose is a sugar, like glucose, but with only five
carbon atoms in its molecule
Deoxyribose is almost the same but lacks one
oxygen atom
Both molecules may be represented by the symbol
Ribose & deoxyribose
4
The most common organic bases are
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine
(G)
The bases
5
The deoxyribose, the phosphate and one of the bases
adenine
deoxyribose
PO
4
Combine to form a nucleotide
Nucleotides
6
A molecule of
DNA is formed
by millions of
nucleotides
joined together
in a long chain
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
sugar-phosphate
backbone
+ bases
Joined nucleotides
7
In fact, the DNA usually consists of a double
strand of nucleotides
The sugar-phosphate chains are on the outside
and the strands are held together by chemical
bonds between the bases
8
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
2-stranded DNA
9
The bases always pair up in the same way
Adenine forms a bond with Thymine
and Cytosine bonds with Guanine
Bonding 1 10
Adenine Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
thymine
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
adenine
cytosine
PO
4
guanine
Bonding 2
11
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
Pairing up
12
The paired strands are coiled into a spiral called

A DOUBLE HELIX
13
DNA Double Helix

Nitrogenous
Base (A,T,G or C)
Rungs of ladder
Legs of ladder
Phosphate &
Sugar Backbone
DNA Double Helix

P
P
P
O
O
O
1
2
3
4
5
5
3
3
5
P
P
P
O
O
O
1
2
3
4
5
5
3
5
3
G
C
T A
Nitrogenous Bases
PURINES
1. Adenine (A)

2. Guanine (G)

PYRIMIDINES
3. Thymine (T)

4. Cytosine (C) T or C
A or G
Chargaffs Rule
Adenine must pair with Thymine

Guanine must pair with Cytosine

Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be
about the same.
G
C
T A
BASE-PAIRINGS

C G
H-bonds
T A
Genetic Diversity
Different
arrangements of
NUCLEOTIDES in a
nucleic acid (DNA)
provides the key to
DIVERSITY among
living organisms.
The Code of Life
The code of the chromosome is the
SPECIFIC ORDER that bases occur.

A T C G T A T G C G G
Before a cell divides, the DNA strands unwind
and separate
Each strand makes a new partner by adding
the appropriate nucleotides
The result is that there are now two double-
stranded DNA molecules in the nucleus
So that when the cell divides, each nucleus
contains identical DNA
This process is called replication
replication 16
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
The strands
separate
17
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
PO
4
Each strand builds up its partner by adding
the appropriate nucleotides
18
The sequence of bases in DNA forms the
Genetic Code
A group of three bases (a triplet) controls
the production of a particular amino acid in
the cytoplasm of the cell
The different amino acids and the order in
which they are joined up determines the
sort of protein being produced
Genetic code 1
19
Ser-Cyst-Val-Gly-Ser-Cyst Ala
Val
Val-Cyst-Ser-Ala-Ser-Cyst-Gly

Val- Cyst-Ala-Ala-Ser-Gly
This is a small, imaginary protein molecule showing
how a sequence of 5 different amino acids could
determine the shape and identity of the molecule
Each amino acid (Serine, Cysteine, Valine, Glycine and
Alanine) is coded for by a particular triplet of bases
Genetic code 2
20
For example
Cytosine
Adenine Codes for
Valine
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Adenine (A)
Codes for
Alanine
Thymine
Coding
21
This is known as the triplet code
Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid
CGA - CAA - CCA - CCA - GCT - GGG - GAG - CCA -
Ala Val Gly Gly Arg Pro Leu Gly
Ala Val Gly Gly Arg Pro Leu Gly
The amino acids are joined together in the correct
sequence to make part of a protein
Triplet code
22
The proteins build the cell structures
They also make enzymes
The DNA controls which enzymes are made and
the enzymes determine what reactions take place
The structures and reactions in the cell determine
what sort of a cell it is and what its function is
So DNA exerts its control through the enzymes
DNA and enzymes
23
A sequence of triplets in the DNA molecule may
code for a complete protein
Such a sequence forms a gene
There may be a thousand or more bases in
one gene
Genes
24
DNA is wrapped tightly around
histones and coiled tightly to form
chromosomes
See p. 297
DNA Replication

DNA must be copied

The DNA molecule produces 2
IDENTICAL new complementary
strands following the rules of
base pairing:
A-T, G-C
Each strand of the
original DNA serves as
a template for the new
strand See p. 298
DNA Replication
Semiconservative
Model:
1. Watson and Crick
showed: the two strands
of the parental molecule
separate, and each
functions as a template
for synthesis of a new
complementary strand.
.
Parental DNA
DNA Template
New DNA
(1961) Watson & Crick proposed
DNA controlled cell function by
serving as a template for PROTEIN
structure.

3 Nucleotides = a triplet or CODON
(which code for a specific AMINO ACID)

AMINO ACIDS are the building blocks
of proteins.
DNA Transcription
DNA can unzip
itself and RNA
nucleotides match
up to the DNA
strand.

Both DNA & RNA
are formed from
NUCLEOTIDES and
are called NUCLEIC
acids.
See p.301
DNA Translation
The cell uses
information from
messenger RNA
to produce proteins
AMAZING DNA FACTS
DNA from a single human
cell extends in a single
thread for almost 2 meters
long!!!

It contains information
equal to some 600,000
printed pages of 500 words
each!!!
(a library of about 1,000 books)