Introduction to Sensors

and actuators


S. Senthil Raja
Sensors
Introduction
Describing Sensor Performance
Sensor types
Temperature Sensors
Light Sensors
Force Sensors
Displacement Sensors
Motion Sensors
Sound Sensors
Sensor Interfacing
I ntroduction
Sensor is a basic component of transducer.
The purpose of a sensor is to respond to
some kind of an input physical property
and to convert it into an electrical signal which
is compatible with electronic circuits.
The sensor output signal may be in the
form of voltage, current, or charge .



I ntroduction contd...,
To be useful, systems must interact with their
environment. To do this they use sensors and
actuators
Sensors and actuators are examples of transducers
A transducer is a device that converts
one physical quantity into another
examples include:
a mercury-in-glass thermometer (converts
temperature into displacement of a column of
mercury)
a microphone (converts sound into an electrical
signal).
We will look at sensors and actuators in this lecture
Almost any physical property of a material that
changes in response to some excitation can be used to
produce a sensor
widely used sensors include those that are:
resistive
inductive
capacitive
piezoelectric
photoresistive
elastic
thermal.
in this lecture we will look at several examples
Sensor Types

A. Based on power requirement:
1. Active: Require external power, called
excitation signal, for the operation
2. Passive: Directly generate electrical signal
in response to the external stimulus

B. Based on sensor placement:
1. Contact sensors
2. Non-contact sensors


Describing Sensor
Performance
Range
maximum and minimum values that can be
measured
Resolution or discrimination
smallest discernible change in the measured value
Error
difference between the measured and actual values
random errors
systematic errors
Accuracy, inaccuracy, uncertainty
accuracy is a measure of the maximum expected
error
Precision
a measure of the lack of random errors (scatter)


Linearity
maximum deviation from a straight-line response
normally expressed as a percentage of the full-
scale value
Sensitivity
a measure of the change produced at the output for
a given change in the quantity being measured
Temperature sensors
Resistive thermometers
typical devices use platinum wire (such a device is
called a platinum resistance thermometers or PRT)
linear but has poor sensitivity





A typical PRT element A sheathed PRT
Thermistors
use materials with a high thermal coefficient of
resistance
sensitive but highly non-linear





A typical disc thermistor A threaded thermistor
pn junctions
a semiconductor device with the
properties of a diode (we will
consider semiconductors and
diodes later)
inexpensive, linear and easy to
use
limited temperature range
(perhaps -50C to 150 C) due to
nature of semiconductor material
pn-junction sensor
Light Sensors
Photovoltaic
light falling on a pn-junction
can be used to generate
electricity from light energy
(as in a solar cell)
small devices used as sensors
are called photodiodes
fast acting, but the voltage
produced is not linearly
related to light intensity
A typical photodiode
Photoconductive
such devices do not produce
electricity, but simply change
their resistance
photodiode (as described
earlier) can be used in this
way to produce a linear
device
phototransistors act like
photodiodes but with greater
sensitivity
light-dependent resistors
(LDRs) are slow, but respond
like the human eye
A light-dependent resistor (LDR)
Force Sensors
Strain gauge

stretching in one direction increases the resistance
of the device, while stretching in the other
direction has little effect
can be bonded to a surface to measure strain
used within load cells and pressure sensors
A strain gauge
Direction of sensitivity
Displacement Sensors
Potentiometers
resistive potentiometers are one of the most widely
used forms of position sensor
can be angular or linear
consists of a length of resistive material with a
sliding contact onto the resistive track
when used as a position transducer a potential is
placed across the two end terminals, the voltage on
the sliding contact is then proportional to its
position
an inexpensive and easy to use sensor
I nductive proximity sensors
Inductive proximity sensors
coil inductance is
greatly affected by the
presence of
ferromagnetic materials
here the proximity of a
ferromagnetic plate is
determined by
measuring the
inductance of a coil
Switches
simplest form of digital displacement sensor
many forms: lever or push-rod operated
microswitches; float switches; pressure
switches; etc.
A limit switch A float switch
Opto-switches
consist of a light source and a light sensor within a
single unit
2 common forms are the reflective and slotted
types
A reflective opto-switch A slotted opto-switch
Absolute position encoders
a pattern of light and dark strips is printed on to a
strip and is detected by a sensor that moves along
it
the pattern takes the form of a series of lines as
shown below
it is arranged so that the combination is unique at
each point
sensor is an array of photodiodes
Incremental position encoder
uses a single line that alternates black/white
two slightly offset sensors produce outputs as
shown below
detects motion in either direction, pulses are
counted to determine absolute position (which
must be initially reset)
Other counting techniques
several methods use counting to determine position
two examples are given below
Opto-switch sensor Inductive sensor
Motion Sensors
Motion sensors measure quantities such as velocity
and acceleration
can be obtained by differentiating displacement
differentiation tends to amplify high-frequency
noise
Alternatively can be measured directly
some sensors give velocity directly
e.g. measuring frequency of pulses in the
counting techniques described earlier gives
speed rather than position
some sensors give acceleration directly
e.g. accelerometers usually measure the force on
a mass

Sound Sensors
Microphones
a number of forms are available
e.g. carbon (resistive), capacitive, piezoelectric
and
moving-coil microphones
moving-coil devices use a magnet and a coil
attached to a diaphragm we will discuss
electromagnetism later
Sensor I nterfacing
Resistive devices
can be very simple
e.g. in a potentiometer, with a fixed voltage
across the outer terminals, the voltage on the
third is directly related to position

where the resistance of the
device changes with the
quantity being measured,
this change can be
converted into a voltage
signal using a potential
divider as shown
the output of this
arrangement is not linearly
related to the change in
resistance

Switches
switch interfacing is also simple
can use a single resistor as below to produce a
voltage output
all mechanical switches suffer from switch bounce
Capacitive and inductive sensors
sensors that change their capacitance or inductance
in response to external influences normally require
the use of alternating current (AC) circuitry
such circuits need not be complicated
we will consider AC circuits in later lectures
Key Points
A wide range of sensors is available
Some sensors produce an output voltage related
to the measured quantity and therefore supply
power
Other devices simply change their physical
properties
Some sensors produce an output that is linearly
related to the quantity being measured, others
do not
Interfacing may be required to produce signals in
the correct form