Mapua Institute of Technology

SURGE and LINE

PROTECTION OF POWER
SYSTEMS

by

Engr. Michael C. Pacis


What is a Power System?
- a power system is one of the tools in converting
and transporting electrical energy

- the conveyance of electric power from a power
station to consumers premises.
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Single Line Diagrams
- provides a compact way to represent a great
deal of additional information for various
devices in the power system.
- in a architect if theres a building layout, in a
power systems engineer there is a one line
diagram.
- usually expressed in line to neutral basis.
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POWER QUALITY:
TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
Causes:
Transmission line failure
Flash-over from lightning
High voltage switches re-closing
Disturbances caused by wind generators
Cable failures
Etc..

Its a long way
from
power producer
to end-user

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Different types of Protection in a
Power System
1. Fuse
2. Circuit Breakers
3. Relays
4. Surge Arresters

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What is a fuse?
- is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which
melts when excessive current flows though it and thus,
it breaks the circuit.
- invented in 1890 by Thomas Alva Edison.
- the fuse element is gradually made of materials having
low melting point, high conductivity and least
deterioration due to oxidation.
- it has a temperature below its melting point.
- the greater the excessive current, the smaller is the
time taken by the fuse to blow out.
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Time Vs Current Curve
Figure 1. time vs current curve for a 100 A fuse
It may take 10 minutes or more to blow a fuse at 25% over its rated current.
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Examples of Fuses
Blade Fuse
ANL Fuse
Glass Fuse
MEGA Fuse
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Fuse and Switch Applications
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Important Terms
1. Current Rating is the current which the fuse element
can normally carry without overheating or melting.

2. Fusing Current it is the minimum current at which the
fuse element melts and thus disconnects the circuit
protected by it.
- to compute for the fusing current I for a round wire,
we use the formula:

I = kd
3/2



I = fusing current, A
d = diameter of the wire, cm
K = fuse constant
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S.No Material D in cm D in mm
1

2

3

4
Copper

Aluminum

Tin

Lead
2530

1873

405.5

340.6
80

59

12.8

10.8
Table 1. Fuse constants for various elements
3. Fusing Factor the ratio of minimum fusing current to
the rating of the fuse element.
- the value is always more than one, the smaller the fusing
factor, the greater the difficulty in avoiding deterioration
due to overheating and oxidation at rated carrying current.
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4. Breaking Capacity it is the rms value of a.c.
component of maximum prospective current that a fuse
can deal with at rated service voltage.
Figure 2. how a.c. current is cutoff by a fuse
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Advantages of a fuse
1. It is the cheapest form of protection available.
2. It requires no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic
4. It can break heavy short circuit currents without noise or
smoke.
5. The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current
limiting effect under short circuit conditions.
6. The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it
suitable for overcurrent protection.
7. The minimum time of operation can be made such
shorterthan with the circuit breakers.

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1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse
after operation.
2. On heavy short-circuits, discrimination between fuses in
series cannot be obtained unless there is sufficient
difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
3. The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always
be co related with that of the protected apparatus.
Disadvantages of a fuse
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Identification of Fuses
Figure 3. How to identify a fuse
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Desirable Characteristic of a fuse
element
1. Low melting point
2. High conductivity
3. Free from deterioration
4. Low cost
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Fuse Element Materials
1. Lead
2. Tin
3. Copper
4. Zinc
5. Silver
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Types of fuses used in a Power System
I . Low Voltage Fuse made up to 500A rated current, the
breaking capacity is about 4000 A.
1. Semi- enclosed rewirable fuse also known as kit-kat
type, is used where low values of fault current are to be
interrupted. It consists of a base and a fuse carrier.
Figure 4. Semi enclosed rewirable
fuse
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2. High Rupturing Capacity ( H.R.C. ) Cartridge Fuse
- the primary objection of low and uncertain breaking
capacity of semi enclosed rewirable fuses is overcome in
H.R.C.

60 A HRC Fuse
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II. High Voltage Fuse are used up to 33 KV with breaking
capacity of 8700 A at that voltage.
1. Cartridge Type this is similar in general construction to
the low voltage cartridge type except that special design
features are incorporated.
2. Liquid Type these fuses are filled with carbon
tetrachloride and have the widest range of applications
to high voltage systems.
- they may be used for circuits up to about 100 A rated
current on systems up to 132KV and have a breaking
capacity of 6100 A.
3. Metal Clad Fuses metal clad oil-immersed fuses have
been developed with the object of providing a substitute
for the oil circuit breaker.
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CIRCUIT BREAKERS
In the earlier days, the function of the switching on and
off of various circuits is performed by a switch and a fuse
placed in series with the circuit.

Disadvantages of this set up
Time of Replacement.
A fuse cannot successfully interrupt heavy fault currents that
results from faults on modern high-voltage and large capacity
circuit.
Applications of this set-up
Only use for low voltage and small capacity circuit.
For switching and protection of distribution transformers,
lighting circuits and branch circuits of distribution lines
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What is a Circuit Breaker?
Break a circuit automatically under fault
condition.
Make a circuit either manually or by remote
control under fault condition.
Make a circuit either manually or by remote
control under normal condition.

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Operating Principles
- A circuit breaker essentially consists of stationary and moving
contacts called electrodes
- Under normal conditions, these contacts remain closed and
will not open automatically until and unless the system
becomes faulty.
- These contacts can be opened manually or by remote control
whenever desired.
- When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils
of the breaker become energized and the moving contacts are
pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
- When the contacts of the circuit breaker are separated under
fault conditions, an arc is struck between them

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Components and Parts of a Circuit
Breaker
Figure 5. Side View of a typical Circuit Breaker
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Figure 6. Assembly of a typical Circuit Breaker
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Important Terms
1. Arc Voltage It is the voltage that appears across the
contacts of the circuit breaker during the arcing period.
2. Restriking Voltage It is the transient voltage that
appears across the contacts at or nears current zero
during arcing period.
3. Recovery Voltage It is the normal frequency (50 hz)
r.m.s. voltage that appears across the contacts of the
circuit breaker after the final arc extinction. It is
approximately equal to the system voltage.



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How current was interrupted by a CB?
Figure 7. Interruption of A.C. current in a CB
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Methods of Arc Extinction

1. High Resistance Method In this method, arc
resistance is made to increase with time so that
current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain
the arc.
The resistance of the arc maybe increased by:
a. Lengthening the arc
b. Cooling the arc
c. Reducing cross-section of the arc
d. Splitting the arc

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2. Low Resistance or Current Zero Method In this
method, arc resistance are kept low until current zero
where the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented
from restriking in spite of the rising voltage across the
contacts.

The de-ionization of the medium can be achieved by:
a. Lengthening the gap
b. High pressure
c. Cooling
d. blast effect
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Classification of Circuit Breakers
Oil Circuit Breakers which employ some insulating
oil for arc extinction.
Air Blast Circuit Breaker in which high pressure
air-blast is used for extinguishing the arc.
Sulfur Hexa Fluoride Circuit Breaker in which
sulfur hexe fluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc
extinction.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker in which vacuum is used
for arc extinction.
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Oil Circuit Breaker
- In such circuit breaker, some
insulating (e.g. transformer oil)
is used as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are
opened under oil and is struck
between them.
- The heat of the arc evaporates
the surrounding oil and
dissociates into a substantial
volume of gaseous hydrogen
at high pressure.
The hydrogen gas occupies a volume of about 1000 times that of the oil
decomposed. Application is limited only to 11 kV.
Figure 8. OCB operation
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Advantages
It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil
into gases which have excellent cooling
properties.
It act as an insulator and permits smaller
clearance between live conductors and earthed
components.
The surrounding oil presents cooling surface in
close proximity to the arc.
Disadvantages
It is flammable and there is a risk of fire.
It may form an explosive mixture with air.
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AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER
- These breakers employ a high pressure air blast as an arc
quenching medium. The contacts are opened in a flow of air
blast established by the opening of the blast valve. The air-
blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing products to
the atmosphere, this rapidly increases the dielectric strength
of the medium between contacts and prevents from re-
establishing the arc. Application ranging 110 kV for this type.
Figure 9. Types of ACB operation
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Advantages
Risk of fire is eliminated
Arc produced are completely removed by the blast
whereas the oil deteriorates with successive operations.
The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final
contact gap needed for arc extinction is very small.
Due to lesser arc energy, air-blast circuit breakers are
very suitable for conditions where frequent operation is
required.
Disadvantages
The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing
properties.
The air-blast circuit breaker are very sensitive to the
variations in the rate of rise of restriking voltage.
Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor
plant which supplies the air-blast.
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SULFUR HEXA FLUORIDE (SF6)
CIRCUIT BREAKER
Sulfur Hexa Fluoride gas is used as the arc quenching
medium. The SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a
strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The contacts
of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6
gas and an arc is struck with them. The conducting free
electrons in the arc rapidly capture by the gas to form
relatively immobile negative ions, this loss of conducting
electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation
strength to extinguish the arc. Application range from
115 kV to 830 kV.
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CONSTRUCTION OF SF
6
CB
Figure 10. Operation of SF
6
Circuit Breaker
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Advantages
Due to superior arc quenching property of SF6, such circuit breakers
are very short arcing time.
Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of the
air, such breakers can interrupt much larger current.
The SF6 circuit breaker gives noiseless operation due to its closed
gas circuit and no exhaust to the atmosphere unlike the air blast
circuit breaker.
The closed gas enclosure keeps the interior dry so that there is no
moi9sture problem.
There is no risk of fire in such breakers because SF6 gas is non-
flammable.
There are no carbon deposits so that tracking and insulation
problems are eliminated.
Since SF6 breakers are totally enclosed and sealed from
atmosphere, they are particularly suitable where explosion hazards
exist.
Disadvantages
SF6 breakers are costly
Since Sf6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the
breaker, additional equipment is required for this purpose.
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VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS
- In such breakers, vacuum (degree o9f vacuum in the
range of 10-7 to 10-5 torr), is used as the arc quenching
medium. Since vacuum offers the highest insulating
strength, it has far arc quenching properties than any
other medium. For example, when contacts of a breaker
are opened in a vacuum, the interruption occurs at first
current zero with dielectric strength between the
contacts building up at a rate thousands of times higher
than that obtained with other circuit breaker. Application
ranging form 22 kV to 66 kV and any 60 to 100 MVA
capacity.
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CONSTRUCTION OF A VACUUM CB
Figure 11. Operation of Vacuum

Circuit Breaker
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Advantages
They are compact, reliable and have longer life.
There are no fire hazards.
There are no generation of gas during and after
operation.
They can interrupt any fault current.
They require little maintenance and are quiet in
operation.
They can successfully withstand lightning surges.
They have low arc energy.
They have low inertia and hence require smaller power
for control mechanism.
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SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Interrupting Capacity The current in which the circuit breaker
must be able to interrupt at the time contacts apart.

KAIC = Factor x I
sc

For Circuit Breaker above 600 V
Factors: 1.0---------------8 cycle duty
1.1---------------5 cycle duty
1.3---------------3 cycle duty
1.2---------------2 cycle duty
1.4---------------15 cycle duty

For CB below 600 V

Interrupting capacity = 1.0 Isc

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Momentary Current Rating the current which a breaker carry
immediately after the fault occurs.

MCR = factor x I
sc


For Circuit Breaker above 600 V
Factors: 1.6----------for HV above 5 kV
1.5----------directly feed from generator
(remote from the station)(600 to 5001 V)

For CB below 600 V

MCR = 1.25 I
sc

SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
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SELECTION OF HIGH VOLTAGE FUSES
Three Phase KVA Interrupting Duty ( KVA
ID
)

KVA
ID
= KVA
sc
(For Current Limiting Fuses above 600 V)



Kilo Ampere Interrupting Capacity or Duty (KAIC)

KAIC = Factor x I
sc

For Current Limiting Fuses above 600V
Factor: 1.6 ------------------ anywhere in the system

For Low voltage Fuses below 600V
Factor: 1.25 ---------------- anywhere in the system


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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
5. Calculate the MCR and KAIC ratings of the circuit breaker and the
available fuse ratings to limit the fault current at point F. Use base
values of MVAbase = 10 and KVbase = 6.24.
G
M1
M2
M3
M4
30 MVA
%X= 15
13.8 KV
30 MVA
%X= 10
13.8 KV/6.24KV
each motor has
10 MVA
%X= 20
F
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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Let: KVAbase = 10,000 and KVb = 6.24
Computing for Isc
3phase
= 29607.706 A
Solving for MCR and KAIC of Circuit Breaker
Since above 5 KV
KAIC = (1.1) x (29,607.706) = 32.768 KA
MCR = (1.6) x (29,607.706) = 47.372 KA
Solving for KVA
ID
and KAIC of the required fuse
KVAsc = KVA
base
x Xth
= 10,000 x (100 / 3.125)
KVAsc = 320,000
KAIC = (1.6) x (29,607.706) = 47.372 KA










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PROTECTIVE RELAY
- a device that detects the fault
and initiates the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate
the defective element from the
rest of the system.

PARTS
1. Primary winding of a current
transformer
2. Secondary winding of current
transformer.
3. Tripping circuit
Figure 12. Relay operation
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THREE PHASE RELAY OPERATION
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Fundamental requirements of
Protective Relaying
I. Selectivity the ability of the protective system to
select correctly that part of the system in trouble and
disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest
of the system.
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PROTECTIVE ZONES
1. generators
2. low-tension switchgear
3. transformers
4. high-tension switchgear
5. Transmission lines
II. Speed the relay should disconnect the faulty part as
soon as possible.
III. Sensitivity it is the ability of the relay system to
operate with low value of actuating quantity.
- the smaller VA input required to the system, the more
sensitive the relay.
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IV. Reliability it is the ability of the relay system to
operate under the pre-determined conditions.

V. Simplicity the relaying system should be simple so that
it can be easily maintained. The simpler the protection
scheme, the greater will be its reliability.

VI. Economy the most important aspect of a particular
protection scheme.
- the protective gear should cost 5% of the total cost.
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BASIC RELAYS
I. Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
- operate by virtue of an armature being attracted to the
poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into
a solenoid.
Types:
1. Attracted Armature type relay
Figure 14. Construction of an armature type relay
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2. Solenoid type relay consists of a movable iron plunger.





3. Balanced Beam Relay consists of an iron armature
fastened to a balanced beam.

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II. Electromagnetic Induction Relays
- operates on the principle of induction motor and are
widely used for protecting relaying purposes involving
a.c. quantities.
- consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in two
alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but
displaced in time and spaced.
Figure 15. elementary arrangement of induction relays
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Types of Induction Relays
1. Shaded-pole Structure
consists of a pivoted aluminum
disc to rotate in the air gap of
an electromagnet. One half of
each pole of the magnet is
surrounded by a copper band
known as shaded ring.

2. Watthour-meter Structure it
consists of a pivoted aluminum
disc arranged to rotate freely
between the poles of two
electromagnets. This relay is
inoperative by opening the
secondary winding.
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Surge Arresters
- used to protect the transformer from lightning surges
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CREDITS
- Power System Analysis and Design by Mulukutha Sarma
- Power System Analysis by Stevenson
- Elements of Power System Analysis by Metha
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