Tata McGraw

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Chapter 9A
Process Capability and SPC
Process Variation
Process Capability
Process Control Procedures
Variable data
Attribute data
Acceptance Sampling
Operating Characteristic Curve
OBJECTIVES
9A-3
Basic Forms of Variation
Assignable variation
is caused by
factors that can be
clearly identified
and possibly
managed
Common variation is
inherent in the
production process
Example: A poorly trained
employee that creates
variation in finished
product output.
Example: A molding
process that always leaves
burrs or flaws on a
molded item.
9A-4
Taguchis View of Variation
Incremental
Cost of
Variability
High
Zero
Lower
Spec
Target
Spec
Upper
Spec
Traditional View
Incremental
Cost of
Variability
High
Zero
Lower
Spec
Target
Spec
Upper
Spec
Taguchis View
Traditional view is that quality within the LS and US is good
and that the cost of quality outside this range is constant, where
Taguchi views costs as increasing as variability increases, so seek
to achieve zero defects and that will truly minimize quality costs.
9A-5
Process Capability Index, C
pk
|
|
.
|

\
|

o o 3
X - UTL
or
3
LTL X
min = C
pk
Shifts in Process Mean
Capability Index shows
how well parts being
produced fit into design
limit specifications.
As a production process
produces items small
shifts in equipment or
systems can cause
differences in
production
performance from
differing samples.
9A-6

A simple ratio:
Specification Width
_________________________________________________________
Actual Process Width

Generally, the bigger the better.
Process Capability A Standard Measure of How
Good a Process Is.
9A-7
Process Capability
This is a one-sided Capability Index
Concentration on the side which is closest to
the specification - closest to being bad
)
`

=
o o 3
;
3
X UTL LTL X
Min C
pk
9A-8
The Cereal Box Example
We are the maker of this cereal. Consumer reports has
just published an article that shows that we frequently
have less than 16 ounces of cereal in a box.
Lets assume that the government says that we must be
within 5 percent of the weight advertised on the box.
Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 + .05(16) = 16.8 ounces
Lower Tolerance Limit = 16 .05(16) = 15.2 ounces
We go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and find that
they weight an average of 15.875 ounces with a standard
deviation of .529 ounces.

9A-9
Cereal Box Process Capability
Specification or Tolerance
Limits
Upper Spec = 16.8 oz
Lower Spec = 15.2 oz
Observed Weight
Mean = 15.875 oz
Std Dev = .529 oz
)
`

=
o o 3
;
3
X UTL LTL X
Min C
pk
)
`

=
) 529 (. 3
875 . 15 8 . 16
;
) 529 (. 3
2 . 15 875 . 15
Min C
pk
{ } 5829 . ; 4253 . Min C
pk
=
4253 . =
pk
C
9A-10
What does a C
pk
of .4253 mean?
An index that shows how well the units
being produced fit within the
specification limits.
This is a process that will produce a
relatively high number of defects.
Many companies look for a C
pk
of 1.3
or better 6-Sigma company wants
2.0!

9A-11
Types of Statistical Sampling
Attribute (Go or no-go
information)
Defectives refers to the
acceptability of product across a
range of characteristics.
Defects refers to the number of
defects per unit which may be
higher than the number of
defectives.
p-chart application

Variable (Continuous)
Usually measured by the mean and
the standard deviation.
X-bar and R chart applications

9A-12
Statistical
Process
Control
(SPC) Charts
UCL
LCL
Samples
over time
1 2 3 4 5 6
UCL
LCL
Samples
over time
1 2 3 4 5 6
UCL
LCL
Samples
over time
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Behavior
Possible problem, investigate
Possible problem, investigate
9A-13
Control Limits are based on the Normal Curve
x
0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1
z

Standard
deviation
units or z
units.
9A-14
Control Limits
We establish the Upper Control Limits
(UCL) and the Lower Control Limits
(LCL) with plus or minus 3 standard
deviations from some x-bar or mean
value. Based on this we can expect
99.7% of our sample observations to
fall within these limits.
x
LCL UCL
99.7%
9A-15
Example of Constructing a p-Chart:
Required Data
1 100 4
2 100 2
3 100 5
4 100 3
5 100 6
6 100 4
7 100 3
8 100 7
9 100 1
10 100 2
11 100 3
12 100 2
13 100 2
14 100 8
15 100 3
Sample
No.
No. of
Samples
Number of
defects found
in each sample
9A-16
Statistical Process Control Formulas:
Attribute Measurements (p-Chart)
p =
T o t al N u m b er o f D efe ct i v es
T o t al N u m b er o f O b s e rv at i o n s
n
s
) p - (1 p
=
p
p
p
z - p = LCL
z + p = UCL
s
s
Given:
Compute control limits:
9A-17
1. Calculate the
sample proportions,
p (these are what
can be plotted on the
p-chart) for each
sample
Sample n Defectives p
1 100 4 0.04
2 100 2 0.02
3 100 5 0.05
4 100 3 0.03
5 100 6 0.06
6 100 4 0.04
7 100 3 0.03
8 100 7 0.07
9 100 1 0.01
10 100 2 0.02
11 100 3 0.03
12 100 2 0.02
13 100 2 0.02
14 100 8 0.08
15 100 3 0.03
Example of Constructing a p-chart: Step 1
9A-18
2. Calculate the average of the sample proportions
0.036 =
1500
55
= p
3. Calculate the standard deviation of the
sample proportion
.0188 =
100
.036) - .036(1
=
) p - (1 p
=
p
n
s
Example of Constructing a p-chart: Steps 2&3
9A-19
4. Calculate the control limits
3(.0188) .036
UCL = 0.0924
LCL = -0.0204 (or 0)
p
p
z - p = LCL
z + p = UCL
s
s
Example of Constructing a p-chart: Step 4
9A-20
Example of Constructing a p-Chart: Step 5
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
p
Observation
UCL
LCL
5. Plot the individual sample proportions, the average
of the proportions, and the control limits
9A-21
Example of x-bar and R Charts:
Required Data
Sample Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4 Obs 5
1 10.68 10.689 10.776 10.798 10.714
2 10.79 10.86 10.601 10.746 10.779
3 10.78 10.667 10.838 10.785 10.723
4 10.59 10.727 10.812 10.775 10.73
5 10.69 10.708 10.79 10.758 10.671
6 10.75 10.714 10.738 10.719 10.606
7 10.79 10.713 10.689 10.877 10.603
8 10.74 10.779 10.11 10.737 10.75
9 10.77 10.773 10.641 10.644 10.725
10 10.72 10.671 10.708 10.85 10.712
11 10.79 10.821 10.764 10.658 10.708
12 10.62 10.802 10.818 10.872 10.727
13 10.66 10.822 10.893 10.544 10.75
14 10.81 10.749 10.859 10.801 10.701
15 10.66 10.681 10.644 10.747 10.728
9A-22
Example of x-bar and R charts: Step 1. Calculate sample means, sample
ranges, mean of means, and mean of ranges.
Sample Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4 Obs 5 Avg
1 10.68 10.689 10.776 10.798 10.714 10.732
2 10.79 10.86 10.601 10.746 10.779 10.755
3 10.78 10.667 10.838 10.785 10.723 10.759
4 10.59 10.727 10.812 10.775 10.73 10.727
5 10.69 10.708 10.79 10.758 10.671 10.724
6 10.75 10.714 10.738 10.719 10.606 10.705
7 10.79 10.713 10.689 10.877 10.603 10.735
8 10.74 10.779 10.11 10.737 10.75 10.624
9 10.77 10.773 10.641 10.644 10.725 10.710
10 10.72 10.671 10.708 10.85 10.712 10.732
11 10.79 10.821 10.764 10.658 10.708 10.748
12 10.62 10.802 10.818 10.872 10.727 10.768
13 10.66 10.822 10.893 10.544 10.75 10.733
14 10.81 10.749 10.859 10.801 10.701 10.783
9A-23
Example of x-bar and R charts: Step 2. Determine Control Limit Formulas
and Necessary Tabled Values
x Chart Control Limits
UCL = x + A R
LCL = x - A R
2
2
R Chart Control Limits
UCL = D R
LCL = D R
4
3
From Exhibit TN8.7
n A2 D3 D4
2 1.88 0 3.27
3 1.02 0 2.57
4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11
6 0.48 0 2.00
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
9 0.34 0.18 1.82
10 0.31 0.22 1.78
11 0.29 0.26 1.74
9A-24
Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps 3&4. Calculate x-bar Chart and Plot
Values
10.601
10.856
= ) .58(0.2204 - 10.728 R A - x = LCL
= ) .58(0.2204 - 10.728 R A + x = UCL
2
2
=
=
10.550
10.600
10.650
10.700
10.750
10.800
10.850
10.900
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample
M
e
a
n
s
UCL
LCL
9A-25
Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps 5&6. Calculate R-chart and Plot
Values
0
0.46504
= =
= =
) 2204 . 0 )( 0 ( R D = LCL
) 2204 . 0 )( 11 . 2 ( R D = UCL
3
4
0 . 0 0 0
0 . 1 0 0
0 . 2 0 0
0 . 3 0 0
0 . 4 0 0
0 . 5 0 0
0 . 6 0 0
0 . 7 0 0
0 . 8 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
S a m p l e
R
UCL
LCL
9A-26
Basic Forms of Statistical Sampling for Quality Control
Acceptance Sampling is sampling
to accept or reject the immediate lot
of product at hand
Statistical Process Control is
sampling to determine if the
process is within acceptable limits
9A-27
Acceptance Sampling
Purposes
Determine quality level
Ensure quality is within predetermined
level
Advantages
Economy
Less handling damage
Fewer inspectors
Upgrading of the inspection job
Applicability to destructive testing
Entire lot rejection (motivation for
improvement)
9A-28
Acceptance Sampling (Continued)
Disadvantages
Risks of accepting bad lots and
rejecting good lots
Added planning and documentation
Sample provides less information
than 100-percent inspection
9A-29
Acceptance Sampling: Single Sampling Plan
A simple goal

Determine (1) how many units, n,
to sample from a lot, and (2) the
maximum number of defective
items, c, that can be found in the
sample before the lot is rejected
9A-30
Risk
Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)
Max. acceptable percentage of
defectives defined by producer
The o (Producers risk)
The probability of rejecting a good
lot
Lot Tolerance Percent Defective
(LTPD)
Percentage of defectives that
defines consumers rejection point
The | (Consumers risk)
The probability of accepting a bad
lot
9A-31
Operating Characteristic Curve
n = 99
c = 4
AQL LTPD
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Percent defective
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o
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a
c
c
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e

| =.10
(consumers risk)
o = .05 (producers risk)
The OCC brings the concepts of producers risk, consumers
risk, sample size, and maximum defects allowed together
The shape
or slope of
the curve is
dependent
on a
particular
combination
of the four
parameters
9A-32
Example: Acceptance Sampling Problem
Zypercom, a manufacturer of video interfaces,
purchases printed wiring boards from an outside
vender, Procard. Procard has set an acceptable
quality level of 1% and accepts a 5% risk of rejecting
lots at or below this level. Zypercom considers lots
with 3% defectives to be unacceptable and will assume
a 10% risk of accepting a defective lot.

Develop a sampling plan for Zypercom and determine
a rule to be followed by the receiving inspection
personnel.
9A-33
Example: Step 1. What is given and what is not?
In this problem, AQL is given to be 0.01 and LTDP
is given to be 0.03. We are also given an alpha of
0.05 and a beta of 0.10.
What you need to determine is your sampling
plan is c and n.
9A-34
Example: Step 2. Determine c
First divide LTPD by AQL.
LTPD
AQL
=
.03
.01
= 3
Then find the value for c by selecting the value in the
TN7.10 n(AQL)column that is equal to or just greater than
the ratio above.
Exhibit TN 8.10
c LTPD/AQL n AQL c LTPD/AQL n AQL
0 44.890 0.052 5 3.549 2.613
1 10.946 0.355 6 3.206 3.286
2 6.509 0.818 7 2.957 3.981
3 4.890 1.366 8 2.768 4.695
4 4.057 1.970 9 2.618 5.426
So, c = 6.
9A-35
Question Bowl
A methodology that is used to
show how well parts being
produced fit into a range
specified by design limits is
which of the following?
a. Capability index
b. Producers risk
c. Consumers risk
d. AQL
e. None of the above
Answer: a. Capability index
9A-36
Question Bowl
On a quality control chart if one of the
values plotted falls outside a
boundary it should signal to the
production manager to do which of
the following?
a. System is out of control, should be
stopped and fixed
b. System is out of control, but can still
be operated without any concern
c. System is only out of control if the
number of observations falling
outside the boundary exceeds
statistical expectations
d. System is OK as is
e. None of the above
Answer: c. System is only out of
control if the number of observations
falling outside the boundary exceeds
statistical expectations
9A-37
Question Bowl
You want to prepare a p chart
and you observe 200
samples with 10 in each,
and find 5 defective units.
What is the resulting
fraction defective?
a. 25
b. 2.5
c. 0.0025
d. 0.00025
e. Can not be computed on
data above
Answer: c. 0.0025 (5/(2000x10)=0.0025)
9A-38
Question Bowl
You want to prepare an x-bar
chart. If the number of
observations in a subgroup is
10, what is the appropriate
factor used in the
computation of the UCL and
LCL?
a. 1.88
b. 0.31
c. 0.22
d. 1.78
e. None of the above
Answer: b. 0.31
9A-39
Question Bowl
You want to prepare an R
chart. If the number of
observations in a
subgroup is 5, what is the
appropriate factor used in
the computation of the
LCL?
a. 0
b. 0.88
c. 1.88
d. 2.11
e. None of the above
Answer: a. 0
9A-40
Question Bowl
You want to prepare an R chart.
If the number of
observations in a
subgroup is 3, what is the
appropriate factor used in
the computation of the UCL?
a. 0.87
b. 1.00
c. 1.88
d. 2.11
e. None of the above
Answer: e. None of the above
9A-41
Question Bowl
The maximum number of
defectives that can be found
in a sample before the lot is
rejected is denoted in
acceptance sampling as
which of the following?
a. Alpha
b. Beta
c. AQL
d. c
e. None of the above
Answer: d. c
9A-42
1-43
End of Chapter 9A
9A-43