Cooks Theorem

The Foundation of NP-Completeness

Theoretical Foundations
An alphabet ={s
1
,s
2
, ,s
k
} is a set of
symbols
The set * is the set of all strings created
using the symbols of .
A problem is a subset X*
An algorithm A solves X, if given any string
x* A accepts x if and only if xX.
Decision Problems & Algorithms
Decision Problems are Set-Membership
Problems
The sets are all assumed to be sets of strings
Deterministic Algorithms Accept or Reject
strings
Non-Deterministic Algorithms Accept
strings, but generally do not Reject strings
The Elements of NP
A problem X is an element of NP if there is
a non-deterministic polynomial-time
algorithm that solves X.
All algorithms can be represented as Turing
Machines
Therefore, each XNP has a Non-
Deterministic Turing Machine M
X
that
accepts the elements of X in polynomial time
What The Theorem Must Do
Given a problem X, and a string x*, create
a Boolean expression in polynomial time
The Boolean expression must be in CNF
form
The Boolean expression must be satisfiable if
and only if xX
We can make use of M
X
and the polynomial
time bound p(n) of M
X
.
The Structure of M
X
I
Any Turing Machine has a State Diagram,
and a tape
The tape is assumed to be a linear set of
squares, each containing a symbol
There is a blank symbol b, that occupies any
un-accessed squares of the tape
The tape extends indefinitely in both
directions
The Structure of M
X
II

The strings to be processed by M
X
are formed
from the symbols from the set
The symbols of may appear on the tape
There may be additional tape-only symbols,
taken from the set
The blank b and b.
The Structure of M
X
III
The set of states is Q
There are three distinguished states of Q, q
0
,
q
y
and q
n
. (q
n
is not strictly required.)
When M
X
is in state q
y
or q
n
, it is halted and
no more transitions are possible.
q
0
is the start state
The Structure of M
X
IV
The set determines the legal transitions
The set of tape symbols T={b}
QTQT{L,R}
If (q
i
,s
j
,q
k
,s
l
,L), then when M
X
is in state q
i

and scanning symbol s
j
on its tape, then it is
legal for M to write s
l
into the current tape
square, move one square to the left, and enter
state q
k
The Structure of M
X
V
More than one element of might apply in a
given configuration
The machine starts in state q
0
with the string
x to be recognized on the tape.
The read-write head is scanning the leftmost
symbol of x (square 1) and blanks appear to
the left and to the right of x.
The Structure of M
X
VI
Each application of an element of counts as
one unit of time and is called a transition
To accept x, it must be possible for M
X
to
enter state q
y
in no more than p(n) transitions,
where n is the length of x.
It is not necessary for M
X
to enter q
n
to reject
x.

Starting Position
... ... ... x
1
x
2
x
3
x
n

3 1 -1 n 0 2
b b b b b b b b b b b b
... ... ...
Read-Write
Head
Input String
Square Number
The Transform
The accepting sequence of the machine M
X

must be modeled in CNF clauses
First it is necessary to define the a number of
variables representing conditions in M
X
Then it is necessary to define clauses to
represent the legal accepting sequences of M
X
The Variables
Q[i,q
k
] where i runs from 0 to p(n) and q
k

runs through all states of M
X

H[i,j] where I runs from 0 to p(n) and j runs
from -p(n) through p(n)+1
S[i,j,s
k
] where i runs from 0 to p(n), j runs
from -p(n) through p(n)+1, and s
k
runs
through all symbols of T (tape symbols)
The Meaning of the Variables
Q[i,q
j
] means that at time i, M
X
is in state q
j
H[i,j] means that at time i, M
X
is scanning
tape square j. Note that in p(n) transitions, the
read-write head can move at most distance
p(n) from its starting point.
S[i,j,s
k
] means that at time I, the contents of
tape square j is s
k
.

Clause Groups
G1 - Guarantee that at each time i, M
X
is in
one and only one state
G2 - Guarantee that at each time i, M
X
is
scanning one and only one tape square
G3 - Guarantee that at each time i, there is
one and only one symbol in each tape
square of the used tape

Clause Groups II
G4 - Guarantee that the machine starts in q0
with x properly positioned on the tape and
the read-write head properly positioned.
G5 - Guarantee that by time p(n) M
X
has
entered q
y
.
G6 - Guarantee that the transitions are
applied properly.

Group G1
For each time i, add the clause
{Q[i,q
1
],Q[i,q
2
], , Q[i,q
t
]} where t is the
number of states in Q.
For each time i, add the set of clauses
{Q[i,q
k
],Q[i,q
j
]} where k and j, taken together
run through all pairs of states of Q. If Q has t
states then t(t+1)/2 clauses are required for
each time i.

G1 Clause Meanings
The first part guarantees that at each time i,
M
X
is in at least one state.
The second part (with the paired barred
variables) guarantees that M
X
is not in more
than one state at time i.
The time i runs from 0 through p(n)
Group G2
For each time i, add the clause:
{H[i,-p(n)],H[i,-p(n)+1],,H[i,p(n)+1]}
For each time i, let j and k run through all
possible pairs of tape squares from -p(n) to
p(n)+1. For each pair (j,k), and each time i,
add the clause {H[i,j],H[i,k]}.
G2 Clause Meanings
The first clause says that M
X
must be
scanning at least one tape square at every
time i.
The second set of clauses says that M
X
cannot
be scanning more than one tape square at any
given time i.
Group G3
Let i run through all times from 0 to p(n) and
j run through all tape squares from -p(n)
through p(n)+1. (There are p(n)*2(p(n)+1)
combinations.
For each (i,j) add
{S[i,j,s
0
],S[i,j,s
1
], ,S[i,j,s
k
]}, where s
0
,s
1
,
,s
k
run through all tape symbols in T.
Group G3 Continued
Let l and m run through all pairs of tape
symbols. If there are k tape symbols, then
there are k(k+1)/2 pairs.
For each combination (i,j) and each pair
(l,m), add the following clause
{S[ i,j,l],S[i,j,m]}
G3 Clause Meanings
G3 Clauses model the behavior of the tape
The first set of clauses guarantees that at any
time i, each tape square contains at least one
tape symbol. We are concerned only about
squares numbered from -p(n) through p(n)+1.
The second set of clauses guarantees that at
any time i, no tape square contains more than
one tape symbol.
Group G4
Add {Q[0,q
0
]}
Add {H[0,1]}
Add {S[0,1,x
1
]}, {S[0,1,x
2
]}, ,{S[0,n,x
n
]}
Add {S[0,0,b]}
Add {S[0,n+1,b]}, {S[0,n+2,b]}, ,
{S[0,p(n)+1,b]}
Add {S[0,-1,b]}, {S[0,-2,b]}, , {S[0,-p(n),b]}
G4 Clause Meanings
The first clause guarantees we start in state 0.
The second clause guarantees the read-write
head starts with square 1.
The next set of clauses guarantees that the
input string is on the tape in the correct
position at time 0.
The final sets of clauses guarantee that at
time 0, the rest of the tape is blank.
Group G5
Add {Q[p(n),q
y
]}
Once we enter state q
y
, no further transitions
are allowed.
This clause guarantees that we have entered
state q
y
either at some time prior to p(n) or at
time p(n).
Entering q
y
causes M
X
to accept its input.
Group G6
Let (q
a
,s
b
,q
c
,s
d
,e) be an element of , where e
is an element of {L,R}.
We need to model the following logical
statement in CNF form:
If the current time is i and M
X
is in state q
a
and M
X
is
scanning tape square j and tape square j contains symbol s
b
,
then at time I+1, M
X
will be in state q
b
, tape square j will
contain s
d
and M
X
will be scanning either square j+1 or j-1
depending on e.
Group G6 Continued
If P then Q is logically equivalent to
~P OR Q.
Assume e=L, then using the variables we get:
~(Q[i,q
a
] AND H[i,j] AND S[i,j,s
b
]) OR
(Q[i+1,q
b
] AND H[i+1,j+1] AND S[i+1,j,s
d
])
For e=R,
~(Q[i,q
a
] AND H[i,j] AND S[i,j,s
b
]) OR
(Q[i+1,q
b
] AND H[i+1,j-1] AND S[i+1,j,s
d
])
Deriving CNF Form
~(Q[i,q
a
] AND H[i,j] AND S[i,j,s
b
]) OR
(Q[i+1,q
b
] AND H[i+1,j+1] AND S[i+1,j,s
d
])
DeMorgans Law:
(Q[i,q
a
] OR H[i,j] OR S[i,j,s
b
]) OR
(Q[i+1,q
b
] AND H[i+1,j+1] AND S[i+1,j,s
d
])
Apply Distributive Law to obtain Three
Clauses
Final Group
e=L
{Q[i,q
a
], H[i,j], S[i,j,s
b
], Q[i+1,q
b
]}
{Q[i,q
a
], H[i,j], S[i,j,s
b
], H[i+1,j+1]}
{Q[i,q
a
], H[i,j], S[i,j,s
b
], S[i+1,j,s
d
]}
e=R
{Q[i,q
a
], H[i,j], S[i,j,s
b
], Q[i+1,q
b
]}
{Q[i,q
a
], H[i,j], S[i,j,s
b
], H[i+1,j-1]}
{Q[i,q
a
], H[i,j], S[i,j,s
b
], S[i+1,j,s
d
]}
G6 The Final Step
For each element of , add one three-clause
group for each combination of time i, and
tape square j.
For each element of , we generate
3*p(n)*2(p(n)+1) clauses.
Windup
The final Boolean Expression is
E=G1G2G3G4G5G6
E is satisfiable if and only if M
X
accepts
x=x
1
x
2
x
3
x
n
E can be constructed from M
X
and x in
polynomial time.