CHAPTER 2
DESIGN AGAINST STATIC LOAD
INTRODUCTION
What is strength? Strength is a property or characteristic of mechanical element. What is Static Load? Stationary force applied to a member. To be stationary the force should be unchanging in magnitude and directions. A static load can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load, a torsional load or any combination of these. Purpose: relationship between strength and static loading in order to make decisions concerning material and its treatment, fabrication, geometry, safety, reliability, usability, manufacturability, etc.
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CONTENT
Modes of Failure Factor of Safety Representing Stress on a Stress Element Direct Stresses: Tension and Compression Deformation Under Direct Axial Loading Direct Shear Stress Torsional Shear Stress Torsional Deformation Torsion in Members Having Noncircular Cross Sections
Mode of Failures
Ductile material is one which has relatively large tensile strain before fracture takes place. For example, steel and aluminum. Brittle material has a relatively small tensile strain before fracture. For example, cast iron.
Factor of Safety
Factor of safety (FS) is defined by either of the equation;
REPRESENTING STRESS ON A STRESS ELEMENT
Positive shear stresses tend to rotate the element in a clockwise direction Negative shear stresses tend to rotate the element in a counterclockwise direction
DIRECT STRESSES: TENSION AND COMPRESSION
Stress: Internal resistance offered by a unit area of material to an external load Perpendicular to element Compressive stresses: Crushing action. Negative by convention. Tensile: Pulling action. Positive by convention.
DIRECT STRESSES: TENSION AND COMPRESSION
force F normal stress , area A
m 2 See example 3-1
Conditions:
load-carry member must be straight line of action of the load must pass through the centroid of cross section of the member member must be of uniform cross section member must be short in the case of compression members
DEFORMATION UNDER DIRECT AXIAL LOADING
FL L EA E
See example 3-2
Where:
= total deformation of the member carrying the
axial F = direct axial load L = original load length of the member E = modulus of elasticity of the material A = cross-sectional area of the member = direct/normal stress
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DIRECT SHEAR STRESS
Occurs
when the applied force tends to cut through the member as scissors. Ex: tendency for a key to be sheared off at the section between the shaft and the hub of a machine element when transmitting torque (see next slide). Apply force is assumed to be uniformly distributed across the cross section.
shearing force F area in shear As
m2
See example 3-3
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DIRECT SHEAR STRESS
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TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
A
torque will twist a member, causing a shear stress in the member
Tc T m ax J Zp
m 2 See example 3-6
general shear stress formula:
Tr J
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TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
Where:
T c J r
= torque = radius of shaft to its outside surface = polar moment of inertia (Appendix 1) = radial distance from the center of the shaft to the point of interest Zp = polar section modulus (Appendix 1)
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TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
The
distribution of stress is not uniform across the cross section
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TORSIONAL DEFORMATION
TL GJ
deg See example
3-7
Where:
T = torque L = length of the shaft over which the angle of twist
is being computed G = modulus of elasticity of the shaft material in shear J = polar moment of inertia (Appendix 1)
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TORSION IN MEMBERS HAVING NONCIRCULAR CROSS-SECTIONS
CIRCULAR SECTION NONCIRCULAR SECTION
Tc T m ax J Zp TL GJ
T max N m2 Q TL rad GK See example 3-8
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TORSION IN MEMBERS HAVING NONCIRCULAR CROSSSECTIONS
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VERTICAL SHEAR STRESS
Beam carrying transverse loads experience shearing forces (V) which cause shearing stress:
VQ It
Q Ap y
m
3
See example 3-10
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VERTICAL SHEAR STRESS
Where: V = shearing force Q = first moment I = moment of inertia t = thickness of the section Ap = area of the section above the place where the shearing force is to be computed y = distance from the neutral axis of the section to the centroid of the area Ap
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VERTICAL SHEAR STRESS
In the analysis of beams, it is usual to compute the variation in shearing force across the entire length of the beam and to draw the shearing force diagram. Vertical shear stress = Horizontal shear stress, because any element of material subjected to a shear stress on one face must have a shear stress of the same magnitude on the adjacent face for the element to be in equilibrium.
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STRESS DUE TO BENDING
A beam is a member that carries load transverse to its axis. Such loads produce bending moments in the beam, which result in the development of bending stress. Bending stress are normal stresses, that is, either tensile or compressive. The maximum bending stress in a beam cross section will occur in the part farthest from the neutral axis of the section. At that point, the flexure formula gives the stress:
Mc flexure formula ; I
m2
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STRESS DUE TO BENDING
Where:
M = magnitude of bending moment at the section c = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost
fiber of the beam cross section I = moment of inertia
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STRESS DUE TO BENDING
The flexure formula was developed subject to the following conditions: - Beam must pure bending. No shearing stress and axial loads. - Beam must not twist or be subjected to torsional load. - Material of beam must obey Hookes law - Modulus of elasticity of the material must be the same in both tension and compression. - Beam is initially straight and has constant cross section. - No part of the beam shape fails because of buckling or wrinkling.
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STRESS DUE TO BENDING
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STRESS DUE TO BENDING
For design, it is convenient to define the term section modulus, S:
SI c [m3 ]
The flexure formula then becomes:
M S
[ N m2 ]
Then, in design, it is usual to define a design stress, d ,and with the bending moment known, then:
S M d [m3 ]
See example 3-12
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To ensure symmetrical bending i.e. no tendency to twist under loading, action of load pass through the line of symmetry:
FLEXURAL CENTER FOR BEAMS
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If there is no vertical axis symmetry:
FLEXURAL CENTER FOR BEAMS
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BEAMS WITH CONCENTRATED BENDING MOMENTS
Beams with concentrated forces or distributed load, moment diagrams are continuous Machine elements that carry loads whose line of action is offset from centroidal axis of beams, a concentrated moment is exerted Examples: cranks, levers, helical gears, etc.
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BEAMS WITH CONCENTRATED BENDING MOMENTS
Bending on a shaft carrying a crank
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COMBINED NORMAL STRESSES: SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
When the same cross section of a load-carrying member is subjected to both a direct tensile and compressive stress and a stress due to bending, the resulting normal stress can be computed by the method of superposition:
Mc F I A
m2
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STRESS CONCENTRATIONS FACTORS
From figure below, the highest stress occurs in the fillet
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CONCLUSION
NORMAL STRESS
DIRECT STRESS: TENSION & COMPRESSION
STRESS DUE TO BENDING
SHEAR STRESS
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
DIRECT SHEAR STRESS
VERTICAL SHEARING STRESS
TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
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THANK YOU
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