Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #

Data Mining: Data

Lecture Notes for Chapter 2

Introduction to Data Mining
by
Tan, Steinbach, Kumar






Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
What is Data?
Collection of data objects and
their attributes

An attribute is a property or
characteristic of an object
Examples: eye color of a
person, temperature, etc.
Attribute is also known as
variable, field, characteristic,
or feature
A collection of attributes
describe an object
Object is also known as
record, point, case, sample,
entity, or instance

Tid Refund Marital
Status
Taxable
Income
Cheat
1 Yes Single 125K No
2 No Married 100K No
3 No Single 70K No
4 Yes Married 120K No
5 No Divorced 95K Yes
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
8 No Single 85K Yes
9 No Married 75K No
10 No Single 90K Yes
10

Attributes
Objects
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Attribute Values
Attribute values are numbers or symbols assigned
to an attribute

Distinction between attributes and attribute values
Same attribute can be mapped to different attribute
values
Example: height can be measured in feet or meters

Different attributes can be mapped to the same set of
values
Example: Attribute values for ID and age are integers
But properties of attribute values can be different
ID has no limit but age has a maximum and minimum value
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Measurement of Length
The way you measure an attribute is somewhat may not match
the attributes properties.


1
2
3
5
5
7
8
15
10
4
A
B
C
D
E
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Types of Attributes
There are different types of attributes
Nominal
Examples: ID numbers, eye color, zip codes
Ordinal
Examples: rankings (e.g., taste of potato chips on a scale
from 1-10), grades, height in {tall, medium, short}
Interval
Examples: calendar dates, temperatures in Celsius or
Fahrenheit.
Ratio
Examples: temperature in Kelvin, length, time, counts

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Properties of Attribute Values
The type of an attribute depends on which of the
following properties it possesses:
Distinctness: = =
Order: < >
Addition: + -
Multiplication: * /

Nominal attribute: distinctness
Ordinal attribute: distinctness & order
Interval attribute: distinctness, order & addition
Ratio attribute: all 4 properties
Attribute
Type

Description

Examples

Operations

Nominal

The values of a nominal attribute are
just different names, i.e., nominal
attributes provide only enough
information to distinguish one object
from another. (=, =)

zip codes, employee
ID numbers, eye color,
sex: {male, female}

mode, entropy,
contingency
correlation, _
2
test

Ordinal

The values of an ordinal attribute
provide enough information to order
objects. (<, >)

hardness of minerals,
{good, better, best},
grades, street numbers

median, percentiles,
rank correlation,
run tests, sign tests

Interval

For interval attributes, the
differences between values are
meaningful, i.e., a unit of
measurement exists.
(+, - )

calendar dates,
temperature in Celsius
or Fahrenheit

mean, standard
deviation, Pearson's
correlation, t and F
tests

Ratio

For ratio variables, both differences
and ratios are meaningful. (*, /)

temperature in Kelvin,
monetary quantities,
counts, age, mass,
length, electrical
current

geometric mean,
harmonic mean,
percent variation

Attribute
Level

Transformation

Comments

Nominal

Any permutation of values

If all employee ID numbers
were reassigned, would it
make any difference?

Ordinal

An order preserving change of
values, i.e.,
new_value = f(old_value)
where f is a monotonic function.

An attribute encompassing
the notion of good, better
best can be represented
equally well by the values
{1, 2, 3} or by { 0.5, 1,
10}.
Interval

new_value =a * old_value + b
where a and b are constants

Thus, the Fahrenheit and
Celsius temperature scales
differ in terms of where
their zero value is and the
size of a unit (degree).

Ratio

new_value = a * old_value

Length can be measured in
meters or feet.

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Discrete and Continuous Attributes
Discrete Attribute
Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values
Examples: zip codes, counts, or the set of words in a collection of
documents
Often represented as integer variables.
Note: binary attributes are a special case of discrete attributes

Continuous Attribute
Has real numbers as attribute values
Examples: temperature, height, or weight.
Practically, real values can only be measured and represented
using a finite number of digits.
Continuous attributes are typically represented as floating-point
variables.

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Types of data sets
Record
Data Matrix
Document Data
Transaction Data
Graph
World Wide Web
Molecular Structures
Ordered
Spatial Data
Temporal Data
Sequential Data
Genetic Sequence Data

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Important Characteristics of Structured Data
Dimensionality
Curse of Dimensionality

Sparsity
Only presence counts

Resolution
Patterns depend on the scale



Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Record Data
Data that consists of a collection of records, each
of which consists of a fixed set of attributes


Tid Refund Marital
Status
Taxable
Income
Cheat
1 Yes Single 125K No
2 No Married 100K No
3 No Single 70K No
4 Yes Married 120K No
5 No Divorced 95K Yes
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
8 No Single 85K Yes
9 No Married 75K No
10 No Single 90K Yes
10

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Data Matrix
If data objects have the same fixed set of numeric
attributes, then the data objects can be thought of as
points in a multi-dimensional space, where each
dimension represents a distinct attribute

Such data set can be represented by an m by n matrix,
where there are m rows, one for each object, and n
columns, one for each attribute
1.1 2.2 16.22 6.25 12.65
1.2 2.7 15.22 5.27 10.23
Thickness Load Distance Projection
of y load
Projection
of x Load
1.1 2.2 16.22 6.25 12.65
1.2 2.7 15.22 5.27 10.23
Thickness Load Distance Projection
of y load
Projection
of x Load
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Document Data
Each document becomes a `term' vector,
each term is a component (attribute) of the vector,
the value of each component is the number of times
the corresponding term occurs in the document.


Document 1
s
e
a
s
o
n
t
i
m
e
o
u
t
l
o
s
t
w
i
n
g
a
m
e
s
c
o
r
e
b
a
l
l
p
l
a
y
c
o
a
c
h
t
e
a
m
Document 2
Document 3
3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
0
0
7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Transaction Data
A special type of record data, where
each record (transaction) involves a set of items.
For example, consider a grocery store. The set of
products purchased by a customer during one
shopping trip constitute a transaction, while the
individual products that were purchased are the items.


TI D I tems
1 Bread, Coke, Milk
2 Beer, Bread
3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
5 Coke, Diaper, Milk

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Graph Data
Examples: Generic graph and HTML Links
5
2
1
2
5
<a href="papers/papers.html#bbbb">
Data Mining </a>
<li>
<a href="papers/papers.html#aaaa">
Graph Partitioning </a>
<li>
<a href="papers/papers.html#aaaa">
Parallel Solution of Sparse Linear System of Equations </a>
<li>
<a href="papers/papers.html#ffff">
N-Body Computation and Dense Linear System Solvers
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Chemical Data
Benzene Molecule: C
6
H
6

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Ordered Data
Sequences of transactions
An element of
the sequence
Items/Events
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Ordered Data
Genomic sequence data
GGTTCCGCCTTCAGCCCCGCGCC
CGCAGGGCCCGCCCCGCGCCGTC
GAGAAGGGCCCGCCTGGCGGGCG
GGGGGAGGCGGGGCCGCCCGAGC
CCAACCGAGTCCGACCAGGTGCC
CCCTCTGCTCGGCCTAGACCTGA
GCTCATTAGGCGGCAGCGGACAG
GCCAAGTAGAACACGCGAAGCGC
TGGGCTGCCTGCTGCGACCAGGG
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Ordered Data
Spatio-Temporal Data
Average Monthly
Temperature of
land and ocean
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Data Quality
What kinds of data quality problems?
How can we detect problems with the data?
What can we do about these problems?


Examples of data quality problems:
Noise and outliers
missing values
duplicate data
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Noise
Noise refers to modification of original values
Examples: distortion of a persons voice when talking
on a poor phone and snow on television screen


Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Outliers
Outliers are data objects with characteristics that
are considerably different than most of the other
data objects in the data set

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Missing Values
Reasons for missing values
Information is not collected
(e.g., people decline to give their age and weight)
Attributes may not be applicable to all cases
(e.g., annual income is not applicable to children)

Handling missing values
Eliminate Data Objects
Estimate Missing Values
Ignore the Missing Value During Analysis
Replace with all possible values (weighted by their
probabilities)
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Duplicate Data
Data set may include data objects that are
duplicates, or almost duplicates of one another
Major issue when merging data from heterogeous
sources

Examples:
Same person with multiple email addresses

Data cleaning
Process of dealing with duplicate data issues
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Data Preprocessing
Aggregation
Sampling
Dimensionality Reduction
Feature subset selection
Feature creation
Discretization and Binarization
Attribute Transformation

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Aggregation
Combining two or more attributes (or objects) into
a single attribute (or object)

Purpose
Data reduction
Reduce the number of attributes or objects
Change of scale
Cities aggregated into regions, states, countries, etc
More stable data
Aggregated data tends to have less variability
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Aggregation
Standard Deviation of Average
Monthly Precipitation
Standard Deviation of Average
Yearly Precipitation
Variation of Precipitation in Australia
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Sampling
Sampling is the main technique employed for data selection.
It is often used for both the preliminary investigation of the data
and the final data analysis.

Statisticians sample because obtaining the entire set of data
of interest is too expensive or time consuming.

Sampling is used in data mining because processing the
entire set of data of interest is too expensive or time
consuming.
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Sampling
The key principle for effective sampling is the
following:
using a sample will work almost as well as using the
entire data sets, if the sample is representative

A sample is representative if it has approximately the
same property (of interest) as the original set of data
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Types of Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
There is an equal probability of selecting any particular item

Sampling without replacement
As each item is selected, it is removed from the population

Sampling with replacement
Objects are not removed from the population as they are
selected for the sample.
In sampling with replacement, the same object can be picked up
more than once

Stratified sampling
Split the data into several partitions; then draw random samples
from each partition
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Sample Size


8000 points 2000 Points 500 Points
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Sample Size
What sample size is necessary to get at least one
object from each of 10 groups.
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Curse of Dimensionality
When dimensionality
increases, data becomes
increasingly sparse in the
space that it occupies

Definitions of density and
distance between points,
which is critical for
clustering and outlier
detection, become less
meaningful
Randomly generate 500 points
Compute difference between max and min
distance between any pair of points
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Dimensionality Reduction
Purpose:
Avoid curse of dimensionality
Reduce amount of time and memory required by data
mining algorithms
Allow data to be more easily visualized
May help to eliminate irrelevant features or reduce
noise

Techniques
Principle Component Analysis
Singular Value Decomposition
Others: supervised and non-linear techniques
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Dimensionality Reduction: PCA
Goal is to find a projection that captures the
largest amount of variation in data

x
2
x
1
e

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Dimensionality Reduction: PCA
Find the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix
The eigenvectors define the new space
x
2
x
1
e

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Dimensionality Reduction: ISOMAP
Construct a neighbourhood graph
For each pair of points in the graph, compute the shortest
path distances geodesic distances
By: Tenenbaum, de Silva,
Langford (2000)
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Dimensions = 10 Dimensions = 40 Dimensions = 80 Dimensions = 120 Dimensions = 160 Dimensions = 206
Dimensionality Reduction: PCA
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Feature Subset Selection
Another way to reduce dimensionality of data

Redundant features
duplicate much or all of the information contained in
one or more other attributes
Example: purchase price of a product and the amount
of sales tax paid

Irrelevant features
contain no information that is useful for the data
mining task at hand
Example: students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of
predicting students' GPA
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Feature Subset Selection
Techniques:
Brute-force approch:
Try all possible feature subsets as input to data mining algorithm
Embedded approaches:
Feature selection occurs naturally as part of the data mining
algorithm
Filter approaches:
Features are selected before data mining algorithm is run
Wrapper approaches:
Use the data mining algorithm as a black box to find best subset
of attributes

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Feature Creation
Create new attributes that can capture the
important information in a data set much more
efficiently than the original attributes

Three general methodologies:
Feature Extraction
domain-specific
Mapping Data to New Space
Feature Construction
combining features
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Mapping Data to a New Space


Two Sine Waves
Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency
Fourier transform
Wavelet transform
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Discretization Using Class Labels
Entropy based approach

3 categories for both x and y 5 categories for both x and y
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Discretization Without Using Class Labels
Data Equal interval width
Equal frequency K-means
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Attribute Transformation
A function that maps the entire set of values of a
given attribute to a new set of replacement values
such that each old value can be identified with
one of the new values
Simple functions: x
k
, log(x), e
x
, |x|
Standardization and Normalization
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Similarity and Dissimilarity
Similarity
Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are.
Is higher when objects are more alike.
Often falls in the range [0,1]
Dissimilarity
Numerical measure of how different are two data
objects
Lower when objects are more alike
Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
Upper limit varies
Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Similarity/Dissimilarity for Simple Attributes
p and q are the attribute values for two data objects.
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Euclidean Distance
Euclidean Distance




Where n is the number of dimensions (attributes) and p
k
and q
k

are, respectively, the k
th
attributes (components) or data
objects p and q.

Standardization is necessary, if scales differ.

=
=
n
k
k k
q p dist
1
2
) (
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Euclidean Distance
0
1
2
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
p1
p2
p3 p4
point x y
p1 0 2
p2 2 0
p3 3 1
p4 5 1
Distance Matrix
p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2.828 3.162 5.099
p2 2.828 0 1.414 3.162
p3 3.162 1.414 0 2
p4 5.099 3.162 2 0
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Minkowski Distance
Minkowski Distance is a generalization of Euclidean
Distance




Where r is a parameter, n is the number of dimensions
(attributes) and p
k
and q
k
are, respectively, the kth attributes
(components) or data objects p and q.

r
n
k
r
k k
q p dist
1
1
) | | (
=
=
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Minkowski Distance: Examples
r = 1. City block (Manhattan, taxicab, L
1
norm) distance.
A common example of this is the Hamming distance, which is just the
number of bits that are different between two binary vectors

r = 2. Euclidean distance

r . supremum (L
max
norm, L

norm) distance.
This is the maximum difference between any component of the vectors

Do not confuse r with n, i.e., all these distances are
defined for all numbers of dimensions.

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Minkowski Distance
Distance Matrix
point x y
p1 0 2
p2 2 0
p3 3 1
p4 5 1
L1 p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 4 4 6
p2 4 0 2 4
p3 4 2 0 2
p4 6 4 2 0
L2 p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2.828 3.162 5.099
p2 2.828 0 1.414 3.162
p3 3.162 1.414 0 2
p4 5.099 3.162 2 0
L

p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2 3 5
p2 2 0 1 3
p3 3 1 0 2
p4 5 3 2 0
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Mahalanobis Distance
T
q p q p q p s mahalanobi ) ( ) ( ) , (
1
=

For red points, the Euclidean distance is 14.7, Mahalanobis distance is 6.
E is the covariance matrix of
the input data X

= E
n
i
k
ik
j
ij k j
X X X X
n
1
,
) )( (
1
1
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Mahalanobis Distance
Covariance Matrix:
(

= E
3 . 0 2 . 0
2 . 0 3 . 0
B
A
C
A: (0.5, 0.5)
B: (0, 1)
C: (1.5, 1.5)

Mahal(A,B) = 5
Mahal(A,C) = 4
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Common Properties of a Distance
Distances, such as the Euclidean distance,
have some well known properties.

1. d(p, q) > 0 for all p and q and d(p, q) = 0 only if
p = q. (Positive definiteness)
2. d(p, q) = d(q, p) for all p and q. (Symmetry)
3. d(p, r) s d(p, q) + d(q, r) for all points p, q, and r.
(Triangle Inequality)
where d(p, q) is the distance (dissimilarity) between
points (data objects), p and q.

A distance that satisfies these properties is a
metric
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Common Properties of a Similarity
Similarities, also have some well known
properties.

1. s(p, q) = 1 (or maximum similarity) only if p = q.

2. s(p, q) = s(q, p) for all p and q. (Symmetry)

where s(p, q) is the similarity between points (data
objects), p and q.

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Similarity Between Binary Vectors
Common situation is that objects, p and q, have only
binary attributes

Compute similarities using the following quantities
M
01
= the number of attributes where p was 0 and q was 1
M
10
= the number of attributes where p was 1 and q was 0
M
00
= the number of attributes where p was 0 and q was 0
M
11
= the number of attributes where p was 1 and q was 1

Simple Matching and Jaccard Coefficients
SMC = number of matches / number of attributes
= (M
11
+ M
00
) / (M
01
+ M
10
+ M
11
+ M
00
)

J = number of 11 matches / number of not-both-zero attributes values
= (M
11
) / (M
01
+ M
10
+ M
11
)
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
SMC versus Jaccard: Example
p = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
q = 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

M
01
= 2 (the number of attributes where p was 0 and q was 1)
M
10
= 1 (the number of attributes where p was 1 and q was 0)
M
00
= 7 (the number of attributes where p was 0 and q was 0)
M
11
= 0 (the number of attributes where p was 1 and q was 1)

SMC = (M
11
+ M
00
)/(M
01
+ M
10
+ M
11
+ M
00
) = (0+7) / (2+1+0+7) = 0.7

J = (M
11
) / (M
01
+ M
10
+ M
11
) = 0 / (2 + 1 + 0) = 0

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Cosine Similarity
If d
1
and d
2
are two document vectors, then
cos( d
1
, d
2
) = (d
1
- d
2
) / ||d
1
|| ||d
2
|| ,
where - indicates vector dot product and || d || is the length of vector d.

Example:

d
1
= 3 2 0 5 0 0 0 2 0 0
d
2
= 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2

d
1
- d
2
= 3*1 + 2*0 + 0*0 + 5*0 + 0*0 + 0*0 + 0*0 + 2*1 + 0*0 + 0*2 = 5
||d
1
|| = (3*3+2*2+0*0+5*5+0*0+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)
0.5
= (42)
0.5
= 6.481
||d
2
|| = (1*1+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+1*1+0*0+2*2)
0.5
= (6)
0.5
= 2.245

cos( d
1
, d
2
) = .3150

Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Extended Jaccard Coefficient (Tanimoto)
Variation of Jaccard for continuous or count
attributes
Reduces to Jaccard for binary attributes
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Correlation
Correlation measures the linear relationship
between objects
To compute correlation, we standardize data
objects, p and q, and then take their dot product
) ( / )) ( ( p std p mean p p
k k
=
'
) ( / )) ( ( q std q mean q q
k k
=
'
q p q p n correlatio
'
-
'
= ) , (
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Visually Evaluating Correlation
Scatter plots
showing the
similarity from
1 to 1.
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
General Approach for Combining Similarities
Sometimes attributes are of many different
types, but an overall similarity is needed.
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Using Weights to Combine Similarities
May not want to treat all attributes the same.
Use weights w
k
which are between 0 and 1 and sum
to 1.
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Density
Density-based clustering require a notion of
density

Examples:
Euclidean density
Euclidean density = number of points per unit volume

Probability density

Graph-based density
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Euclidean Density Cell-based
Simplest approach is to divide region into a
number of rectangular cells of equal volume and
define density as # of points the cell contains
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar Introduction to Data Mining 4/18/2004 #
Euclidean Density Center-based
Euclidean density is the number of points within a
specified radius of the point