Antenna

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Introduction
 An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors
 Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space

 Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for

transmission and reception.
 Antennas convert “Wire Line” signals to “Wire Less”

• The physical size of the radiating element is proportional to the

wavelength. The higher the frequency, the smaller the antenna
size.

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Types of Antennas
– Generally speaking, there are two ‘types’ of
antennae:
1. Directional
 this type of antenna has a narrow
beamwidth; with the power being more
directional, greater distances are usually
achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
 Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic antennae

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2. Omni-Directional
 this type of antenna has a wide beamwidth and
radiates 360;
 Radiates power equally in all directions
(A=B)
 with the power being more spread out, shorter
distances are achieved but greater coverage
attained
 Also called as Isotropic antenna

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 Dipole antennas
 Half-wave dipole
Quarter-wave vertical
antenna (or Hertz antenna (or Marconi
antenna) antenna)

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Antenna Gain
 Antenna gain
 The amount of energy the antenna can ‘boost’ the sent and
received signal by is referred to as the antennas Gain.
 Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that
produced in any direction by a perfect omnidirectional
antenna (isotropic antenna)

 Relationship between antenna gain and effective area

4π Ae 4π f 2 Ae
G= 2 =

λ
G = antenna gain
c 2

 Ae = effective area
 f = carrier frequency
 c = speed of light (≈ 3 x 108 m/s)
 λ = carrier wavelength

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 Gain may be expressed as dBi or dBd
 When talking about gain it is always
the main lobe that is discussed.

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dBi versus dBd

 dBi indicates gain vs. isotropic antenna

 Isotropic antenna radiates equally well

in all directions,
 spherical pattern
 dBd indicates gain vs. reference half-
wavelength dipole
 Dipole has a doughnut shaped pattern

with a gain of 2.15 dBi

dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

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There are certain guidelines set by the FCC that must be met in
terms of the amount of energy radiated out of an antenna. This
‘energy’ is measured in one of two ways:

1. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBi]
2. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBd]

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 Antenna System Elements

Antennas

Earthing kit
Mounting clamp
Wall gland
Cable trace

Feeder cable

Jumper cable

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Jumper Connector
Jumpercable
cable Connector

Feeder
Feederclamps
clamps
Grounding
Grounding

Feeder
FeederClamps
Clamps

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 Feeder
 Technical summary:
Inner conductor: Copper wire
Dielectric: Low density
foam PE
Outer conductor: Corrugated
copper tube
Jacket: Polyethylene (PE)
black

Outer
Outerconductor
conductor
Inner
Innerconductor
conductor

Jacket
Jacket
Dielectric
Dielectric

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Trisectorial Site Antennas

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Polarization
 Radio waves are built by two fields, one
electric and one magnetic.
 These two field are perpendicular to
each other.
 The sum of the fields is the
electromagnetic field.
 The position and direction of the electric
field with reference to the earth’s
surface (the ground) determines wave
polarization.
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 Horizontal polarization - the electric field is
parallel to the ground.
 Vertical polarization - the electric field is
perpendicular to the ground.

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Polarisation of EM wave

circular

vertical

Electrical field, E
horizontal

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Tx Power
Tx is short for “Transmit”
All radios have a certain level or Tx power that the
radio generates at the RF interface. This power is
calculated as the amount of energy given across a
defined bandwidth and is usually measured in one
of two units:
1. dBm – a relative power level referencing 1 milliwatt
2. W – a linear power level referencing Watts

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Rx Sensitivity
 Rx is short for “Receive”
 All radios also have a certain ‘point of
no return’, where if they receive a signal
less than the stated Rx Sensitivity, the
radio will not be able to ‘see’ the data.
 This is also stated in dBm or W.
 The actual level received at the radio
will vary depending on many factors.

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dB Units
 Decibel (dB) is a mathematical expression
showing the relationship between two values.
 Relative Measurement dB=10 log(Po/Pi)
 The RF power level at either transmitter output
or receiver input is expressed in Watts, but it
can also be expressed in dBm.
 The relation between dBm and Watts can be
expressed as follows:
P dBm = 10 x Log P mW

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 For example: 1 Watt = 1000 mW;
P dBm = 10 x Log 1000 = 30 dBm
 100 mW; P dBm = 10 x Log 100 = 20 dBm
 dBW is wrt to Watt
 dBm is wrt to mill Watt
 dBi is wrt to Isotropic value
 An Increase of 3dB = Increase by 2 Times

 An Increase of 7dB = Increase by 5Times

 An Increase of 10dB = Increase by 10 Times

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W-dBm
-30 dBm 1μW
-20 dBm 10μW
-10 dBm 100μW
-7 dBm 200μW
-3 dBm 500μW
0 dBm 1 mW
3 dBm 2mW
7 dBm 5mW
10 dBm 10mW
13 dBm 20mW
20 dBm 100mW
30 dBm 1W
40 dBm 10W
50 dBm 100W 21
Signal Propagation
 As the signal leaves the antenna it propagates,
or disperses, into space. The antenna selection
will determine how much propagation will occur.
 At 2.4 GHz it is extremely important to ensure a
that a path (or tunnel) between the two
antennas is clear of any obstructions. Should
the propagating signal encounter any
obstructions in the path, signal degradation will
occur.

Trees, buildings, poles, and towers are common examples of

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path obstructions.
RF Planning
 The radio access part of the wireless network is
considered of essential importance as it is the direct
physical radio connection between the mobile
equipment and the core part of the network.
 In order to meet the requirements of the mobile
services, the radio network must offer sufficient
coverage and capacity while maintaining the lowest
possible deployment costs.

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RF Planning
 Aims To Be Achieved(For Operator)
 Operators Strategic Intentions should
reflect in Planning
 First : Coverage
 Second : Tariffs !
 Third , Fourth …. : Quality Of Network &
Service, Value Added services, Content
Provisions !!

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 Inputs to be given to the OMC-R team by
the RF team to design the RF Database
 Frequencies (BCCH,HSN), Base Station
Colour Codes (BCC)
 Location Area Codes
 Neighbour Lists for each cell
 Transmitter Power for each cell etc..,

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General Approach for Radio
Network Planning
 The radio network planning process can be
divided into different phases as
 Preplanning phase
 Traffic & Coverage Analysis
 Nominal Cell Plan
 Main planning phase
 Surveys
 System Design
 Adjustment phase
 Implementation & System Tuning
 System Growth

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Radio Cell Site planning
process

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STEP 1: TRAFFIC AND COVERAGE
ANALYSIS
 Cell planning begins with traffic and coverage
analysis.
 The analysis should produce information about the
geographical area and the expected capacity (traffic
load).
 The types of data collected are:
 Cost
 Capacity
 Coverage

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 Grade Of Service (GOS)
 Available frequencies
 Speech quality
 System growth capability
 The basis for all cell planning is the traffic
demand, i.e. how many subscribers use the
network and how much traffic they
generate.

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Erlang – a unit of traffic
 An Erlang is a unit of telecommunications
traffic measurement. 
 It Erlang represents the continuous use of one
voice path. 
 In practice, it is used to describe the total
traffic volume of one hour.
 Erlang traffic measurements are made in order
to help telecommunications network designers
understand traffic patterns within their voice
networks. 

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Erlang contd..,
 It can be calculated with the following formula:
A = n x T / 3600 Erlang
Where,
A = offered traffic from one or more users in
the system
n = number of calls per hour
T = average call time in seconds

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Erlang contd..,
 For example, if a group of user made 30 calls in
one hour, and each call had an average call
duration of 5 minutes, then the number of Erlangs
this represents is worked out as follows:
 Minutes of traffic in the hour=number of calls x
duration
 Minutes of traffic in the hour=30 x 5=150
 Seconds of traffic in the hour=150 x 60 = 9000
 Hours of traffic in the hour=9000 / 3600
 Hours of traffic in the hour=2.5
 Traffic figure=2.5 Erlangs

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Basic Data for Planning
 The geographical distribution of traffic demand can be
calculated by the use of demographic data such as:
 Population distribution
 Telephone usage statistics
 Topography
 Details of Roads & Towns from Maps
 Type of Buildings, People’s Profile..
 Presence of Competitor, their Customer base

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Calculation of required no of
BTS’s
 To determine the number and layout of BTS’s
the number of subscribers and the Grade Of
Service (GOS) have to be known.
 The GOS is the percentage of allowed
congested calls and defines the quality of the
service.
 If n=1 and T=90 seconds then the traffic per
subscriber is:
A = 1 x 90 / 3600 = 25mE

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 If the following data exists for a
network:
 Number of subscribers: 10,000
 Available frequencies: 24
 Cell pattern: 4/12
 GOS: 2%
 Traffic per subscriber: 25mE

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 4/12 means that there are four three-sector
sites supporting twelve cells.

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 this leads to the following calculations:
 Frequencies per cell = 24 / 12 = 2
 Traffic channels per cell = 2 x 8 - 2 (control
channels) = 14 TCH
 Traffic per cell = 14 TCH with a 2% GOS implies
8.2 Erlangs per cell (see Table 10-1)
 The number of subscribers per cell = 8.2E /
25mE = 328 subscribers per cell

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 If there are 10,000 subscribers
then the number of cells
 needed is 10,000 / 328 = 30 cells.
 Therefore, the number of three
sector sites needed is 30 /3 = 10

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Erlang Table

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Erlang Table contd..,

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Step 2: Nominal Cell Plan
 A nominal cell plan can be produced
from the data compiled from traffic and
coverage analysis.
 The nominal cell plan is a graphical
representation of the network and looks
like a cell pattern on a map.
 Nominal cell plans are the first cell plans
and form the basis for further planning.

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Nominal Cell Plan

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Nominal Cell Plan contd..,
 Successive planning must take into account
the radio propagation properties of the actual
environment.
 Such planning needs measurement
techniques and computer-aided analysis tools
for radio propagation studies.
 Ericsson’s planning tool, TEst Mobile System
(TEMS) CellPlanner, includes a prediction
package which provides:

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Nominal Cell Plan contd..,
 Coverage predictions
 Co-channel interference predictions
 Adjacent channel interference predictions
 TEMS cell planner is a software package
designed to simplify the process of
planning and optimizing a cellular network.

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Frequency Planning
 Frequency re-use means that two radio channels
within the same network can use exactly the
same pair of frequencies, provided that there is
a sufficient geographical distance (the frequency
reuse distance) between them so they will not
interfere with each other.
 Tighter Re-use = More Capacity. But also results
in increased interference issues. Trade Off..
 Plan to achieve the capacity within tolerable
interference levels

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Frequency Planning
contd..,
 The GSM specification recommends that the carrier-to
interference (C/I) ratio (co channel interference) is
greater than 9 decibels (dB).
 The GSM specification states that the carrier-to-adjacent
ratio (C/A) (adjacent channel interference) must be
larger than -9dB.
 By planning frequency re-use in accordance with well
established cell patterns, neither co-channel
interference nor adjacent channel interference will cause
problems.

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TEMS Cell Planner
 With TEMS CellPlanner, traffic can be
spread around on a map to determine
capacity planning.
 The traffic can be displayed using
different colors for different amounts of
Erlangs/km or the user can highlight the
cells that do not meet the specified
GOS.

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TEMS Cell Planner contd..,
 It is possible to import data from a test
MS and display it on the map.
 TEMS CellPlanner can also import radio
survey files, which can be used to tune
the prediction model for the area where
the network is to be planned.
 Data can also be imported from and
exported to OSS.

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Step3 : Surveys
 Once a nominal cell plan has been completed
and basic coverage and interference
predictions are available, site surveys and
radio measurements can be performed.
 Site surveys are performed for all proposed
site locations.
 Radio measurements are to be made at all the
locations.

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Surveys contd..,
 Radio measurements are performed to adjust
the parameters used in the planning tool to
reality.
 That is, adjustments are made to meet the
specific site climate and terrain requirements.
 For example, parameters used in a cold
climate will differ from those used in a
tropical climate.

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Surveys contd..,
 A test transmitter is mounted on a vehicle, and
signal strength is measured while driving around
the site area which is called as Drive Test.
 Afterwards, the results from these measurements
can be compared to the test tool values.
 Through drive tests the simulated results will be
examined and refined until the best compromise
between all of the facts is achieved.

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Step 4: System Design
 Once the planning parameters have been adjusted to
match the actual measurements, dimensioning of the site
can be adjusted and the final cell plan produced.
 As the name implies, this plan can then be used for system
installation.
 New coverage and interference predictions are run at this
stage, resulting in Cell Design Data (CDD) documents
containing cell parameters for each cell.
 During system design link budget is also supposed to be
calculated.

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Link Budget Calculations
– To establish the viability of a link prior to
installing any equipment, a Link Budget
Calculation needs to be made.
– Performing this calculation will give you an
idea as to how much room for path loss you
have, and give you an idea as to link quality.

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Link Budget
 The link budget is the table recording the power loss
in the uplink or downlink of the network
 Power Budget Calculations
 What is the max Path Loss?
 What can be the BTS Tx Power? : To balance both links
 Cell size Evaluation
 Main factors : BTS & MS Powers, Sensitivity
 Slow, Fast Fade Margins, Penetration Losses

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 Fade Margin
– Defined as the difference between the
Receive Signal Level RSL, and the Rx
Threshold or other chosen reference Level.

Ie. If you have an RSL of –60dB and a Rx

Threshold of –72dB, than your fade Margin
would be 12dB

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Link Budget contd..,
 The link budget results can be improved
by adopting some techniques like
frequency hopping, using receiver
diversity, implementing tilt, DTX and by
choosing proper site location.

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Step 5 & 6: System
Implementation and Tuning
 Once the system has been installed, it is
continuously monitored to determine how well it
meets demand.
 This is called system tuning. It involves:
 Checking that the final cell plan was implemented
successfully
 Evaluating customer complaints
 Checking that the network performance is
acceptable
 Changing parameters and taking other
measurements, if necessary

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TEMS
 TEst Mobile Systems (TEMS) is a testing tool used
to read and control the information sent over the
air interface between the BTS and the MS.
 It can be used for radio coverage measurements.
 In addition, TEMS can be used both for field
measurements and post processing.

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TEMS

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TEMS contd..,
 TEMS consists of an MS with special software, a
portable Personal Computer (PC) and optionally
a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver.
 The MS can be used in active and idle mode.
 The PC is used for presentation, control and
measurements storage.

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TEMS contd..,
 The GPS receiver provides the exact
position of the measurements by utilizing
satellites.
 TEMS measurements can be imported to
TEMS CellPlanner.
 This means that measurements can be
displayed on a map.

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TEMS graphical user
interface

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Step 7: System Growth
 Cell planning is an ongoing process.
 If the network needs to be expanded
because of an increase in traffic or
because of a change in the environment
(e.g. a new building), then the operator
must perform the cell planning process
again, starting with a new traffic and
coverage analysis.

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64
 Antenna Impedance
A proper Impedance Match is essential for maximum power
transfer. The antenna must also function as a matching load for
the Transmitter ( 50 ohms).

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), is an indicator of how

well an antenna matches the transmission line that feeds it.

It is the ratio of the forward voltage to the reflected voltage. The

better the match, the Lower the VSWR. A value of 1.5:1 over the
frequency band of interest is a practical maximum limit.

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 Return Loss is related to VSWR, and is
a measure of the signal power reflected
by the antenna relative to the forward
power delivered to the antenna.
 The higher the value (usually expressed
in dB), the better. A figure of 13.9dB is
equivalent to a VSWR of 1.5:1. A Return
Loss of 20dB is considered quite good,
and is equivalent to a VSWR of 1.2:1.
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VSWR Return Loss Transmission Loss

1.0:1 ∞ 0.0 dB

1.2:1 20.83 dB 0.036 dB

1.5:1 13.98 dB 0.177 dB

5.5:1 3.19 dB 2.834 dB

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