Structure Query Language (SQL)

What is SQL? How does it work? How is it being used?

What you will learn?

Overview of DBMS/RDMBS/MS SQL 2008 Database Objects Data Manipulation and Data Retrieval Grouping and Summarizing Data Built-in Functions Modifying Table Structures Working with Sub-queries Joining Multiple Tables

Fractal Academy of Analytics

Overview of DBMS/RDMBS/MS SQL 2008

Fractal Academy of Analytics

What is a database(DBMS)?
DBMS means Data Base Management System Database is a structured collection of data. Database stores records relating to each other in a table Tables are uniquely identified by their names and consists of rows and columns Columns contain the column name, data type and any other attributes for the column Rows contain the records or data for the columns Visualize table as a tabular arrangement of data vertical columns and horizontal rows Database Applications: Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Fractal Academy of Analytics

What is a relational database?

Most common data management scheme Data is organized into two-dimensional tables of rows and columns Data is decomposed into its simplest form Normalization reduces data inconsistency Referential Integrity

Attributes
Example of tabular data in the relational model
Customer-id customer-name customer-street customer-city account-number

192-83-7465

Johnson

Alma

Palo Alto

A-101

019-28-3746
192-83-7465 321-12-3123 019-28-3746

Smith
Johnson Jones Smith

North
Alma Main North
Fractal Academy of Analytics

Rye
Palo Alto Harrison Rye

A-215
A-201 A-217 A-201
5

Relational database[RDBMS]
Following databases falls under RDMBS IBM DB2 Microsoft Access Microsoft SQL Server MySQL NonStop SQL Oracle The SAS system SQLBase SQLite

Fractal Academy of Analytics

Microsoft SQL Server 2008

Description: Microsoft SQL Server is a relational database management system developed by Microsoft. As a database, it is a software product whose primary function is to store and retrieve data as requested by other software applications, be it those on the same computer or those running on another computer across a network (including the Internet) Components of SQL Server: SQL server database engine SSAS- Sql server analysis services SSIS- Sql server integration services SSRS-Sql server reporting services Why we are using this: This is widely used in Fractal and much demanded by client wherever data is big in volume.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

SQL and Capabilities

SQL is a language used to retrieve data from databases. can execute queries against a database can retrieve data from a database can insert records in a database can update records in a database can delete records from a database can create new databases can create new tables in a database can create stored procedures in a database can create views in a database can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

Fractal Academy of Analytics

SQL DDL and DML

SQL is more than just a query language It has two parts: SQL Data Definition Language CREATE TABLE creates a new database table ALTER TABLE alters a database table DROP TABLE deletes a database table SQL Data Manipulation Language SELECT queries and fetches data from a database table UPDATE modifies one or more rows in a database table DELETE FROM deletes one or more rows from a database table INSERT INTO inserts new rows in a database table

Fractal Academy of Analytics

Domain(Data) Types in SQL

Each column in a table has a data type or domain type associated to it The domain type is specified while creating the table The commonly used domain types are char(n) Fixed length character string with user specified length n varchar(n) Variable length character string with user specified maximum length n int(n) Integer with user specified maximum number of digits smallint(n) Small integer with user specified maximum number of digits numeric(p,d) Fixed point number, with user specified precision of p digits, with n digits to the right of the decimal point date Dates usually in yyyy-mm-dd format

Fractal Academy of Analytics

10

Primary & Foreign Keys

Primary Keys: The Primary key defines the column(s) that uniquely identify every row in the table. Remember to specify all columns within the primary key as NOT NULL You can have only a single primary key constraint defined for a table

Foreign Keys: Foreign keys is used to implement referential integrity between tables within your database. By creating foreign keys you can ensure that related tables cannot contain invalid rows

Fractal Academy of Analytics

11

Constraints

Constraints are basically the limitation that you want to put on your database while inserting new data in the table Default constraints allow you to specify a value that is written to the column if the application does not supply a value Default constraints apply only to new rows added with an INSERT statement You can define default constraints for either NULL or NOT NULL columns The following chart describes the types of restrictions you can place on columns and tables by using database-level constraints and triggers

Fractal Academy of Analytics

12

Database Objects

Fractal Academy of Analytics

13

Database Objects
Handle storage, manipulation, retrieval of data & data integrity . Available database objects are: Tables - a table is a set of data elements (values) that is organized columns rows. Views - a view is the result set of a stored query. Temporary Table It could be very useful to keep temporary data and will be deleted when the current client session terminates.

Rules - rules are the requirements and restrictions for columns.

Constraints - are user-defined structures that let you restrict the behaviors of columns Stored Procedures - is a subroutine. Complex processing that requires execution of several SQL statements can be moved into stored procedures. Triggers - is automatically executed in response to certain events on a particular table or view in a database. Indexes - is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a database table
Fractal Academy of Analytics
14

Rules for Naming Database Objects

There are a series of standard naming rules for Data base objects Standard Identifiers Contain up to 128 characters Include alphabets, symbols & numbers Rules to be followed while using standard identifiers First character should be an alphabet [a z or A Z] This can be followed by alphabets, numbers, or any of the special characters @, $, # or

Delimited Identifiers If an identifier does not comply with the rules for the format identifiers, it must always be delimited Used when names contain embedded spaces, or when reserved words are used

Fractal Academy of Analytics

15

Guidelines for naming database objects

Guidelines for naming database objects Use short names Use meaningful names Follow a clear naming convention Use an identifier that distinguishes the type of object Keep the user name and object name unique Data base objects can be referred in several ways Fully Qualified Names: Complete name of an SQL Server object includes four identifiers - Server name, Database name, Owner name, Object name An object name that specifies all four parts is known as a fully qualified name Partially Qualified Names: When referencing an object, the user is not required to specify the server, database, and owner always Intermediate identifiers can be omitted as long as their position is indicated by periods

Fractal Academy of Analytics

16

Creating Database
Name of the database to be created CREATE DATABASE database_name ON ( [ NAME = logical_file_name, ] FILENAME = 'os_file_name' [, SIZE = size] [, MAXSIZE = { max_size | UNLIMITED } ]; ) Logical database name (Optional) Location of the database to be created (Optional)

Example:
Types of Database File:

CREATE DATABASE Test ON ( NAME = Test, FILENAME = 'c:\Test.mdf', SIZE = 4, MAXSIZE = 10, FILEGROWTH = 1 );

Primary Data base File (.mdf) / Main database file Mandatory Secondary Data base File (.ndf) Log Data base File (.ldf) Archive Data base File

Fractal Academy of Analytics

Alter Database
Altering DB by Adding New file / Removing Existing File Syntax: ALTER DATABASE database { ADD FILE < filespec > [ ,...n ] | ADD LOG FILE < filespec > [ ,...n ] | REMOVE FILE logical_file_name | MODIFY FILE < filespec > | MODIFY NAME = new_dbname } ;

Example: ALTER DATABASE Test ADD FILE (NAME = addnewfile_data, FILENAME = 'c:\addnewfile.ndf', SIZE = 5MB, MAXSIZE = 100MB, FILEGROWTH = 5MB) ; Removing file from the database ALTER DATABASE Test REMOVE FILE Testlog ; Modifying a file ALTER DATABASE Test MODIFY FILE (NAME = Testlog, SIZE = 20MB) ;
Fractal Academy of Analytics
18

Create Table
The general syntax for a CREATE TABLE command is: CREATE TABLE r (A_1 D_1, A_2 D_2, , A_n D_n, (integrity-constraint_1), (integrity-constraint_m) ) Given a row, the values for some columns may be missing, unknown or not applicable for that row Such values are designated with the SQL keyword NULL Using SQL, one can specify an integrity constraint on a column ensuring it does not contain null values for any row The primary key is a combination of columns which uniquely identify each row No two rows can have same values in all the columns of the primary key A table may or may not have a primary key

Fractal Academy of Analytics

19

Create Table . . .
CREATE TABLE MEMBERS ( MEMBER_ID VARCHAR2(6) NOT NULL, MEMBER_NAME VARCHAR2(10), MEMBER_AGE NUMBER, ADDRESS VARCHAR2(40));
Member_id Member_name Member_age Address

Book_id

Book_name

Author_name

Category

CREATE TABLE BOOKS ( BOOK_ID VARCHAR2(6) NOT NULL, BOOK_NAME VARCHAR2(20), AUTHOR_NAME VARCHAR2(15), CATEGORY VARCHAR2(15) );

CREATE TABLE TRACKER ( BOOK_ID VARCHAR2(6) NOT NULL, MEMBER_ID VARCHAR2(6), ISSUE_DATE DATE, ISSUED_BY VARCHAR2(15));

Book_id

Member_Id

Issue_date

Issued_By

Fractal Academy of Analytics

20

Drop & Alter Table

The ALTER TABLE command is used to add columns to an existing table All rows in the table are assigned NULL as the value for the RETURN_DATE The ALTER TABLE command can also be used to remove existing columns ALTER TABLE TRACKER ADD RETURN_DATE DATE;

DROP TABLE TRACKER;

The DROP TABLE command deletes the specified table from the database DROP TABLE TRACKER

Fractal Academy of Analytics

21

Data Manipulation and Retrieval

Fractal Academy of Analytics

22

Data Manipulation | Insert Data

Use the INSERT command to enter data into a table.

Syntax : INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...); Types of Insert : Insert the exact values as per table structure (columns). : INSERT INTO SalesStaff1 VALUES (1, 'Stephen', 'Jiang');

Insert multiples values at same time i.e. using single query. : INSERT INTO SalesStaff1 VALUES (2, 'Michael', 'Blythe'), (3, 'Linda', 'Mitchell'), (4, 'Jillian', 'Carson'); Insert only required values into a table from another table. : INSERT INTO SalesStaff1(StaffID, FirstName) SELECT StaffID, FirstName FROM SalesStaff2 WHERE StaffID=8;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

23

Data Manipulation | Insert Data

Inserting value in a table having IDENTITY column. Consider below Person table CREATE TABLE Person ( P_Id int PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255),` Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) );

IDENTITY keyword is used for auto-increment. Default starting value is 1 and increments by 1 for each new record. To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the identity to IDENTITY(10,5). INSERT INTO Person (FirstName,LastName) VALUES ('Lars','Monsen');

No Need to provide value for IDENTITY column as it is entered automatically by SQL server.
Fractal Academy of Analytics
24

Data Manipulation | Updating Data

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table. Syntax :

UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1,column2=value2,... WHERE some_column=some_value;

UPDATE SalesStaff1 SET FirstName='Alfred', DeptNo=10 WHERE = StaffID=3;

UPDATE table1 A SET A.Fld1 = ( SELECT B.Fld1 FROM table2 B WHERE A.Fld2 = B.Fld2 );

If WHERE clause is omitted in above query then all records will get updated.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

25

Data Manipulation | Copying a Table

To create a copy of table we can use SELECT * INTO query .

Syntax :

SELECT * INTO new_table_name FROM old_table_name;

The above query will create new table with same table structure as that of old table and all rows will get copied. Ex:
SELECT * INTO Person_cpy FROM Person;

The new table must not exist already in the database.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

26

Data Manipulation | Delete & Truncate

DELETE (DML) The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table. Syntax : To delete rows based on condition To delete all rows from table

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_column=some_value;

DELETE * FROM table_name;

DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustName=Jim Anders' AND ContactName='Maria Anders'; DELETE * FROM Customers; TRUNCATE (DDL) Records removed by the TRUNCATE TABLE statement cannot be restored. TRUNCATE TABLE removes all rows from a table, but the table structure and its columns, constraints, indexes remain. Syntax : TRUNCATE TABLE table_name; TRUNCATE TABLE Customers;
Fractal Academy of Analytics
27

Data Manipulation | Delete

Difference Between DELETE and TRUNCATE

DELETE Logs delete operation thus making it slow. Can be rolled back. Can have criteria (WHERE clause) to delete.

TRUNCATE Does not log any activity, therefore it is faster. Cannot be rolled back. There is no criteria, all records are truncated.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

28

Data Retrieval | Select & Where

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. SELECT column_name1,column_name2 FROM table_name; SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers WHERE Country='Mexico; SELECT * FROM Customers;

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion. SELECT column_name1 FROM table_name WHERE column_name 2 operator value;

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Mexico';

Fractal Academy of Analytics

29

Data Retrieval | Operators in WHERE Clause

Operator = <> Description Equal Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as != Greater than Less than Greater than or equal Less than or equal Between an inclusive range Search for a pattern To specify multiple possible values for a column

> < >= <= BETWEEN LIKE IN

Fractal Academy of Analytics

30

Data Retrieval | Fetching Random Data

Comparison operators: = > < <= >= <> (or !=) SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country <> UK; BETWEEN ... AND ... SELECT * FROM products WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20; SELECT * FROM products WHERE CompanyName BETWEEN A AND F ;

LIKE (with wildcard: % _ )

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE ContactTitle LIKE Sales%; IN (list) SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE State IN (OR, WA, CA) ; AND, NOT, OR with any of the above SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country = USA AND City = New York; IS NULL, IS NOT NULL SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE PostalCode IS NOT NULL; SELECT * FROM products WHERE Discount IS NULL;
Fractal Academy of Analytics
31

Data Retrieval | Fetching Distinct Values

In a table, a column may contain many duplicate values and sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct) values. The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.:

SELECT DISTINCT column_name1,column_name 2 FROM table_name;

SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

32

Grouping and Summarizing Data

Fractal Academy of Analytics

33

TOP Clause
The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return. The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number of records can impact on performance. This is very useful for large tables with thousands of records

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s) FROM table_name SELECT TOP 1 Country_Code, Vendor_Value_MLC, Vendor_Volume_MSU FROM [AAIJK BABY CARE] COUNTRY_CODE IN DATABASE DP VENDOR_VALUE_MLC 33.32184 VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU 0.01546311

SELECT TOP 1* FROM [ [AAIJK BABY CARE] SELECT TOP 60 percent * FROM CUSTOMER

Fractal Academy of Analytics

34

Aggregate Functions
With SQL and SQL Server you can use lots of built-in functions or you may create your own functions. SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data. We have 2 categories of functions, Aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column, while scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value. Aggregate functions - examples: AVG() - Returns the average value COUNT() - Returns the number of rows MAX() - Returns the largest value MIN() - Returns the smallest value SUM() - Returns the sum Scalar functions - examples: UPPER() - Converts a field to upper case LOWER() - Converts a field to lower case ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified GETDATE() - Returns the current system date and time

Fractal Academy of Analytics

35

Aggregate Functions
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column. SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name SELECT Avg(VENDOR_VALUE_MLC) AVG_VENDOR_VALUE_MLC 229483.726994896 The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria. The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of the specified column: SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name SELECT Count(Country_Code) AS CNT_VENDOR_VALUE_MLC FROM [AAIJK BABY CARE] CNT_VENDOR_VALUE_MLC 1080174
Fractal Academy of Analytics
36

FROM [AAIJK BABY CARE]

Group By
The GROUP BY statement is often used with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or more columns. SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name Example SELECT COUNTRY_CODE, Avg(VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU) AS AVG_VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU FROM [AAIJK BABY CARE] GROUP BY COUNTRY_CODE COUNTRY_CODE ID IN JP PH VN AVG_VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU 2.65908836939374 1.08605703692316 0.954831321140269 1.33917439045886 2.07322729027707
Fractal Academy of Analytics
37

Having Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate functions. SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value Example SELECT COUNTRY_CODE, Avg(VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU) AS AVG_VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU FROM [AAIJK BABY CARE] GROUP BY COUNTRY_CODE HAVING Avg(VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU)>2

COUNTRY_CODE
ID VN

AVG_VENDOR_VOLUME_MSU
2.65908836939374 2.07322729027707

Fractal Academy of Analytics

38

Built-in Functions

Fractal Academy of Analytics

39

Built-in Functions | Numeric Functions

The ABS(m) function returns the exponential value of the specified float expression. SELECT ABS(m) SELECT ABS(-52.25)

The MOD(m,n) function returns the remainder of m divided by n

SELECT MOD(m, n);

SELECT MOD(96,3);

The POW(m,n) function returns m raised to the nth power SELECT POW(m, n);

SELECT POW(8,3);

Fractal Academy of Analytics

40

Built-in Functions | Numeric Functions

The ROUND ( m [, n ] ) function returns m rounded to the nth decimal place SELECT ROUND(m) SELECT ROUND(25.65, 2)

The TRUNC( m, n) function returns m truncated to the nth decimal place

SELECT TRUNC(m, n) FROM table_name;

SELECT TRUNC(25.85, 2)

The CEILING( m ) smallest integer greater than or equal to m SELECT CEILING( m )

SELECT CEILING(52.58)
Similarly, there is FLOOR ( m ) function which returns greatest integer smaller than or equal to m

Fractal Academy of Analytics

41

Built-in Functions | String Functions

The CHARINDEX() function searches an expression for another expression and returns its starting position if found. SELECT CHARINDEX ( expressionToFind ,expressionToSearch [ , start_location ] ) SELECT CHARINDEX( 'e','abcdef', 1) The REVERSE(s) function Returns the reverse order of a string value SELECT REVERSE ( s ) SELECT REVERSE( abcd ) The LENGTH(s) function returns the number of characters in s SELECT LENGTH(column_name); SELECT LENGTH(123456)

Fractal Academy of Analytics

42

Built-in Functions | String Functions

The LTRIM (s) function returns s with blanks removed up to the first character SELECT LTRIM(s) SELECT LTRIM( hello) Similarly, we have RTRIM() which return s with blanks removed after the last character

The LEFT ( s, n ) function returns the left part of a character string with the specified number of characters. SELECT LEFT ( character_expression , integer_expression ) SELECT LEFT ( abcd , 2 ) Similarly, RIGHT ( s, n ) function returns the right part of a character string with the specified number of characters.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

43

Built-in Functions | Date Functions

The ISDATE ( d ) function returns 1 or 0 depending on whether the argument is a valid date or not SELECT ISDATE(d) SELECT ISDATE(NAME) SELECT ISDATE(GetDate()) returns 0 returns 1

The DAY ( d ) function returns day number of the month SELECT DAY(d) SELECT DAY (01/31/2012) returns 31

The MONTH ( d ) function returns month number of the year SELECT MONTH (d) SELECT MONTH (01/31/2012) Similarly, we have YEAR( d ) function
Fractal Academy of Analytics
44

returns 1

Built-in Functions | Date Functions

The DATEPART() function is used to return a single part of a date/time, such as year, month, day, hour, minute, etc. SELECT DATEPART(datepart, date) SELECT DATEPART(yyyy,'01/31/2012') Where date is a valid date expression and datepart can be one of the following:

Fractal Academy of Analytics

45

Modifying Table Structures

Fractal Academy of Analytics

46

Modifying Table Structure

After a table has been in use for some time, users often discover that they want to store additional information about the entities represented in the table. It includes Changing Table Definition Changing Column Definition Changing Constraint Definition

The ALTER TABLE statement can: Add a column definition to a table Drop a column from a table Change the default value for a column Add or drop a primary key for a table Add or drop a new foreign key for a table Add or drop a uniqueness constraint for a table Add or drop a check constraint for a table

Fractal Academy of Analytics

47

Changing Table Definition | Add Column

The most common use of the ALTER TABLE statement is to add a column to an existing table. The column definition clause in the ALTER TABLE statement is just like the one in the CREATE TABLE statement, and it works the same way. The new column is added to the end of the column definitions for the table, and it appears as the rightmost column in subsequent queries. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype; ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD CONTACT_PHONE CHAR(10); (Add a minimum inventory-level column to the PRODUCTS table) ALTER TABLE PRODUCTS ADD MIN_QTY INTEGER NOT NULL WITH DEFAULT 0; OR ALTER TABLE PRODUCTS ADD COLUMN MIN_QTY INTEGER NOT NULL WITH DEFAULT 0

you cannot simply declare the new column NOT NULL, because the DBMS would assume NULL values for the column in the existing rows, immediately violating the constraint!
Fractal Academy of Analytics
48

Changing Table Definition | Drop Column

The ALTER TABLE statement can be used to drop one or more columns from an existing table when they are no longer needed. ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name; To handled the potential data-integrity problems posed by DELETE and UPDATE statements you can specify one of two drop rules:

RESTRICT: If any other objects in the database (foreign keys, constraints, and so on) depend on the column to be dropped, the ALTER TABLE statement fails with an error and the column is not dropped. CASCADE: Any other objects in the database (foreign keys, constraints, and so on) that depend on the column are also dropped as a cascaded effect of the ALTER TABLE statement.

Dropping a column can pose the data-integrity issues.

Fractal Academy of Analytics
49

Changing Table Definition | Alter Column

The ALTER TABLE statement can be used to alter columns of an existing table when needed. Alter column means changing data type of a column. ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype

Changing Default Value of a Column You can create a DEFAULT definition as part of the table definition when you create a table. If a table already exists, you can add DEFAULT definition to it. Each column in a table can contain one DEFAULT definition. If a DEFAULT definition already exists, you can modify or delete it. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name DEFAULT value For column_name

Default value should match with the data type of the column
Fractal Academy of Analytics
50

Add & Drop Primary | Foreign Key

The other common use for the ALTER TABLE statement is to change or add primary key definitions for a table.
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (column1,column2,column_n) ALTER TABLE table_name DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name ; The other common use for the ALTER TABLE statement is to change or add foreign key definitions for a table. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name FOREIGN KEY (column_name) REFERENCES primary_key_table_name(primary_key_column_name); ALTER TABLE table_name DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name ;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

51

Working with Sub-Queries

Fractal Academy of Analytics

52

Sub Queries
A Sub-Query is a SQL query nested inside a larger query. A Sub-Query may occur in : A SELECT clause A FROM clause A WHERE clause A Sub-Query can be treated as an inner query, which is a SQL query placed as a part of another query called as outer query. A Sub-Query is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to further restrict the data to be retrieved.

The inner query executes first before its parent query

Fractal Academy of Analytics
53

Sub Queries - Rules

There are a few rules that Sub-Queries must follow:
Sub-Queries must be enclosed within parentheses. A Sub-Query can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple columns are in the main query for the Sub-Query to compare its selected columns. An ORDER BY cannot be used in a Sub-Query, although the main query can use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same function as the ORDER BY in a Sub-Query. Sub-Queries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value operators, such as the IN operator. The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB. A Sub-Query cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function. The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a Sub-Query; however, the BETWEEN can be used within the Sub-Query.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

54

Sub Queries Example

The general syntax for Sub-Query: SELECT column_name [, column_name ] FROM table1 [, table2 ] WHERE column_name OPERATOR (SELECT column_name [, column_name ] FROM table1 [, table2 ] [WHERE])

Example: SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 4500)

Fractal Academy of Analytics

55

Sub Queries | IN & Exists Operator

Sub-Queries that are introduced with the keyword IN take the general form: WHERE expression [NOT] IN (Sub-Query) The only difference in the use of the IN operator with Sub-Queries is that the list does not consist of hard-coded values.

Example: SELECT emp_last_name "Last Name, emp_first_name "First Name" FROM employee WHERE emp_ssn IN (SELECT dep_emp_ssn FROM dependent WHERE dep_gender = 'M') When a Sub-Query uses the EXISTS operator, the Sub-Query functions as an existence test. The WHERE clause of the outer query tests for the existence of rows returned by the inner query. The Sub-Query does not actually produce any data; rather, it returns a value of TRUE or FALSE.

Example: SELECT emp_last_name "Last Name", emp_first_name "First Name FROM employee WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM dependent WHERE emp_ssn = dep_emp_ssn)

Fractal Academy of Analytics

56

Joining Multiple Tables

Fractal Academy of Analytics

57

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to temporarily rename a table or a column heading. Basically aliases are created to make column names more readable. Aliases can be useful when: There are more than one table involved in a query Functions are used in the query Column names are big or not very readable Two or more columns are combined together

SQL Aliases

SQL Aliases for table columns

SQL Aliases for tables

Fractal Academy of Analytics

58

SQL Aliases for table columns

SQL Alias Syntax for Columns SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name; Example 1. SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person] FROM Customers; Tip: It require double quotation marks or square brackets if the column name contains spaces: Example 2. In the following SQL statement we combine four columns (Address, City, PostalCode, and Country) and create an alias named "Address": SELECT CustomerName, Address+', '+City+', '+PostalCode+', '+Country AS Address FROM Customers;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

59

SQL Aliases for table

SQL Alias Syntax for Columns SELECT column_name FROM table_name AS alias_name; Example SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o WHERE c.CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

Same SQL statement without aliases SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.OrderDate, Customers.CustomerName FROM Customers, Orders WHERE Customers.CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

Fractal Academy of Analytics

60

SQL Joins
An SQL JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a common field between them. Types the different SQL JOINS are as follows INNER JOIN: Returns all rows when there is at least one match in BOTH tables. LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the right table. RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, and the matched rows from the left table. FULL JOIN: Return all rows when there is a match in ONE of the tables. SELF JOIN is used to join a table to itself, as if the table were two tables, temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement. CARTESIAN JOIN or CROSS JOIN returns the Cartesian product of the sets of records from the two or more joined tables.

Fractal Academy of Analytics

61

SQL Joins Inner Join

The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match between the columns in both tables.

SQL INNER JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name; OR SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

62

SQL Joins Inner Join | Example

Employee ENO 100 200 300 400 ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Durga DEPT CSE EEE ECE IT Salary ENO 100 200 500 600 DESIG LECT Sr. LECT PROF Ass. PROF SALARY 15000 20000 35000 30000

Select FROM

e.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary Employee e Inner Join Salary s On e.eno = s.eno;

Output ENO ENAME DEPT 100 Raji Eswar CSE EEE DESIG LECT Sr. LECT SALARY 15000 20000

Select
From Where

e.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary

employee e , salary s e.eno = s.eno;

200

Fractal Academy of Analytics

63

SQL Joins Left Join

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1), with the matching rows in the right table (table2). The result is NULL in the right side when there is no match.

SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

64

SQL Joins Left Join | Example

Employee ENO 100 200 300 400 Select From ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Durga DEPT CSE EEE ECE IT Salary ENO 100 200 500 600 DESIG LECT Sr. LECT PROF Ass. PROF SALARY 15000 20000 35000 30000

e.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary employee e Left Outer Join salary s On e.eno = s.eno;

Select From

s.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary salary s Left Outer Join employee e On e.eno = s.eno;

ENO 100 200 300

ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash

DEPT CSE EEE ECE

DESIG SALARY LECT 15000

ENO 100 200 500 600

ENAME Raji Eswar Null Null

DEPT CSE EEE Null Null

DESIG LECT Sr. LECT PROF Ass. PROF

SALARY 15000 20000 35000 30000

65

Sr. LECT 20000 Null Null

400

Durga

IT

Null

Null

Fractal Academy of Analytics

SQL Joins Right Join

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the right table (table2), with the matching rows in the left table (table1). The result is NULL in the left side when there is no match.

SQL Right JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name; OR SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

66

SQL Joins Right Join | Example

Employee ENO 100 200 300 400 Select ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Durga DEPT CSE EEE ECE IT
100 200 500

Salary
ENO LECT Sr. LECT PROF DESIG SALARY 15000 20000 35000

600

Ass. PROF

30000

s.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary

Select From

e.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary salary s Right Outer Join employee e On e.eno = s.eno;

From employee e Right Outer Join salary s On e.eno = s.eno; ENO 100 200 500 600 ENAME Raji Eswar Null Null DEPT CSE EEE Null Null DESIG LECT Sr. LECT PROF Ass. PROF SALARY 15000 20000 35000 30000

ENO 100

ENAME Raji

DEPT CSE

DESIG SALARY LECT 15000

200
300 400

Eswar
Kailash Durga

EEE
ECE IT

Sr. LECT 20000

Null Null Null Null
67

Fractal Academy of Analytics

SQL Joins Full Outer Join

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1) and from the right table (table2).

SQL Full Outer JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Fractal Academy of Analytics

68

SQL Joins Full Outer Join | Example

Employee ENO 100 200 300 400 ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Durga DEPT CSE EEE ECE IT Salary ENO 100 200 500 DESIG LECT Sr. LECT PROF SALARY 15000 20000 35000

600

Ass. PROF

30000

Select s.eno, ename, dept, desig, salary From employee e Full Outer Join salary s On e.eno = s.eno;

ENO 100 200 300 400 500 600

ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Durga Null Null

DEPT CSE EEE ECE IT Null Null

Fractal Academy of Analytics

DESIG LECT Sr. LECT Null Null PROF Ass. PROF

SALARY 15000 20000 Null Null 35000 30000

69

SQL Joins Self Join | Example

ENO 100 200 300 400 500 600 Select From Where ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Durga Shanmuga Ganesh DEPT CDW CDW CDW CDW CDW CDW DESIG CEO Sr. Mgr Mgr Sr. B.A. B.A. B.A. MGR NO 100 100 200 300 300 300 SALARY 150000 75000 50000 35000 20000 20000

e2.ename as Employee Name , e1.ename as Manager Name employee e1, employee e2 e2.mgrno = e1.eno; Employee Name Raji Eswar Kailash Durga Shanmuga Ganesh Manager Name Raji Raji Eswar Kailash Kailash Kailash
Fractal Academy of Analytics
70

SQL Joins Cross Join | Example

A cross join is the foundation upon which inner joins are built. A cross join returns the Cartesian product of the sets of rows from the joined tables

Employee
ENO 100 200 ENAME Raji Eswar DEPT CSE EEE

Salary DESIG LECT Sr. LECT SALARY 15000 20000

300
Select From

Kailash

ECE

eno, ename, dept, desig, salary employee e , salary s;

ENO 100 100 200 200 300 300

ENAME Raji Raji Eswar Eswar Kailash Kailash

DEPT CSE CSE EEE EEE ECE ECE

DESIG LECT Sr. LECT LECT Sr. LECT LECT Sr. LECT

SALARY 15000 20000 15000 20000 15000 20000

71

Fractal Academy of Analytics

SQL Joins Union

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements. Each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The columns must also have similar data types. the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order. The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in the first SELECT statement in the UNION.

SQL Union Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2;

Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default.

SQL UNION ALL Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2;
Fractal Academy of Analytics
72

SQL Joins Union | Example

CDW ENO 100 200 300 ICICI ENO 100 400 500

ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash

DEPT CSE EEE ECE

ENAME Raji Siva Durga

DEPT CSE EEE ECE

Select eno, ename, dept Union Select eno, ename, dept

From CDW From ICICI;

Select eno, ename, dept Union all Select eno, ename, dept

From CDW From ICICI;

ENO 100 200 300 400 500

ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Siva Durga

DEPT CSE EEE ECE EEE ECE

ENO 100 200 300 100 400 500

ENAME Raji Eswar Kailash Raji Siva Durga

DEPT CSE EEE ECE CSE EEE ECE

Fractal Academy of Analytics

73

Thank you

Fractal Academy of Analytics

74