Chapter 4 Chemical bonding

4.1 Types of chemical bonding 4.2 Ionic bonding 4.3 Covalent bonding Hybridisation sp, sp2, sp3 4.4 Shapes of molecules 4.5 Metallic bonding 4.6 Intermolecular forces 4.7 Bonding and physical properties

4.1 Types of chemical bonding

Ionic bonding covalent bonding atoms WITHIN molecules kept by strong covalent bonds INTERmolecular forces weak forces BETWEEN molecules

Few types of INTERmolecular forces:

Van der Waals forces (VDW) (dispersion forces/ temporary dipole-induced forces) Permanent dipole-dipole forces Hydrogen bond (H-bond)

Important to explain the structure & physical ppt of element & compounds based on the types of chemical bondings

4.2 Ionic bonding

interaction between metal and non-metal through electron transfer Electron transfer forms ion; metal loses electron form cation; non-metal gain electron form anion Attracted each other by strong ELECTROSTATIC FORCE (between +ve and ve ions) to form ionic compound Sometimes also called as Electrovalent bond

Using dot-and cross diagrams

It shows: Outer e- shells only (VALENCE ELECTRON) The charge of the ion is spread evenly, by using square brackets The charge of each ion

Examples (MUST KNOW):

NaCl (Figure 4.4 pg 51) MgO (Figure 4.5 pg 51) CaCl2(Figure 4.6 pg 51)

4.3 Covalent bond

Single covalent bond sharing of electrons between two or more nonmetals atoms Represented by a SINGLE LINE PAIRS of outer shell e- NOT USED in bonding Lone pair

Single covalent bond

Multiple covalent bond Sharing 2 pairs of electrons (double covalent bond)

Oxygen

ethene

Carbon dioxide

Triple covalent bond

xx x Nx x

Nitrogen

4.4 Shapes of molecules

Electron pair repulsion theory All e- have ve charge and will repel each other when they are close together Pair of electrons in the bonds surrounding the central atom in a molecule will repel other e- pair The repulsion forces of the e- pairs FORCES the pairs of electrons to part as further as possible until the repulsive forces are minimised.

Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory

In the VSEPR model it is assumed that molecular geometries occur because of the influence of electron pairs within the system, more so than the ways in which atoms are bonded together. This is a qualitative theory, which therefore does not involve much in the way of mathematics. In essence, the VSEPR theory states that electron pairs of electrons repel each other, therefore for a molecule to be at its most stable electron pairs must be as far from each other as possible.

 The influence of lone electron pairs It is important to recognise the influence of lone electron pairs as well as those that are involved in bonding.

Concentration of e- charge cloud:

Lone > bonded

Lone pairs e- cloud charges are wider and slightly closer to the atom Lone pairs of electrons are under the influence of a single atom (rather than the whole molecule), they are therefore held tightly to that particular atom. This is the reason that lone pair repulsions are greater than those that are bonded.

The repulsion sequence (starting with the strongest repulsion) is shown below: Lone Pair Lone Pair > Lone Pair Bonded Pair > Bonded Pair Bonded Pair Figure 4.15 pg 56. Consequently lone pairs of electrons have a major effect on the shape of a molecule.

 Shape and bond angles of covalently bonded molecule depends on No. of e- pairs around each atom Whether these e- are lone pairs or bonding pairs Molecular shapes similar to those discussed in reference to Hybridization theory are generally adopted in VSEPR theory as well.

No epairs 2 3 3

No. bonding e- pairs 2 3 2

No. lone epairs 0 0 1

Geometry

Angle

Examples

Linear Trigonal planar Bent/Vshape

180 120 <120

BeCl2/BeH2/HCN/ Ethyne BF3, Ethene

Tetrahedral

109.5

CH4, CCl4, SO42Methane

NH3, PCl3 H20 SF6

4 4 6

3 2 6

1 2 0

Triangular pyramidal Bent/Vshape Octahedral

<109.5 <109.5 90

No epairs 5

No. bonding e- pairs 5

No. lone epairs 0

Geometry

Angle

Examples

Trigonal bypyramidal

90, 120

PCl5,

Seesaw

90, <120

SF4

T-shaped

90

ClF3

Linear

180

XeF2 , I3-

No epairs 6

No. bonding e- pairs 6

No. lone epairs 0

Geometry

Angle

Examples

Octahedral

90

SF6

Square pyramidal

90

BrF5

Square planar

90

XeF4 , ICl4-

Num of bonded egroups

Hybrid orbitals and molecular geometry 2 3 4

AB2 Linear AB3 Trigonal planar AB4

Composition Geometry of e- groups

Bond angles Hybridisation Example

1800 sp

1200 sp2

109.50 sp3 CCl4 SO42Methane

BeCl2/BeH2/Ethy ne HCN

BF3 Ethene

Sigma bond,

formation of covalent bond when two atomic orbitals on adjacent atoms overlaps Involves the overlapping of one end of an atomic orbital from one atom to another one end of an atomic orbital from another atom; end-to-end overlapping The electron density at the overlapping area would be the greatest, thus the bond is rather strong.

S-S bond H H 1s1 1s1

H2

S-P bond H F 1s1 2p5

HF

P-P bond Cl Cl 3p5 3p5

Cl2

Pi bond,

formation of covalent bond when two p atomic orbitals are overlapping sideways Formation of pi bond are weaker than sigma bond as the bond is loosely held by the atom nuclei, and the overlapping of orbitals is smaller. Pi bonds are only formed after bond is formed.

sideways overlapping

one bond

Hybridisation

Atomic orbitals can be combined together to form hybrid orbitals, and bonds involving such orbitals are called hybrid orbitals The electrons rearrange themselves again in a process called hybridisation. 3 main types of hybridisation, sp, sp2 and sp3. (Others such as sp3d, sp3d2)

In hybridisation, the no. of hybrid orbitals produced equals the total no. of atomic orbitals that are combined. For eg: sp3 hybridisation produces (1+3) orbitals. Only atomic orbitals that are fairly close in energy can be combined to form hybrid orbitals. Hybrid between 2s and 4s?

Example: Ground state e- configuration of the valence shell of Carbon is 2s2 2p2. If only valence shell atomic orbitals containing single, unpaired e can be overlapped and used in covalent bonding, it is thus predicted that the molecule CH2 is linear and the bond angle of H-CH is 90 degree. (p-orbitals are at 90 degrees to each other) Therefore hybridisation is suggested to rationalize the observed shape of a molecule

sp3 hybridisation

What is this called?

There is a serious mis-match between this structure and the modern electronic structure of carbon, 1s22s22px12py1. When bonds are formed, energy is released and the system becomes more stable. If carbon forms 4 bonds rather than 2, twice as much energy is released and so the resulting molecule becomes even more stable.

There is only a small energy gap between the 2s and 2p orbitals, and so it pays the carbon to provide a small amount of energy to promote an electron from the 2s to the empty 2p to give 4 unpaired electrons.
The extra energy released when the bonds form more than compensates for the initial input. The carbon atom is now said to be in an excited state.

tetrahedron (a triangularly based pyramid)

Other sp3 examples : CCl4, PCl3

Example : Methane CH4

4 C-H bonds

sp2 Hybridisation

only hybridise 3 of the orbitals rather than all four. They use the 2s electron and two of the 2p electrons, but leave the other 2p electron unchanged.

Hybrid orbitals are shorter and fatter

The three sp2 hybrid orbitals arrange themselves as far apart as possible - which is at 120 to each other in a plane.

Example : Ethene C2H4

4 C-H bonds, 1 C-C bond, 1 C-C bond

sp hybridisation

Example : Ethyne C2H2

2 C-H bonds, 1 C-C bond, 2 C-C bond

BENZENE

Benzene has two resonance structures, showing the placements of the bonds.

Each of the 6-C atoms is sp2 hybridisation

The H-C-C bond is 120 degree

bond
sp2 hybridised orbital of C atom overlap with 1s atomic orbital of hydrogen produced single covalent C-H bond Each C atom forms 3 bond (2 for C, 1 for H)

bond
6 2p orbitals of the C atoms which are not hybridised, overlap sideways on both sides to form 6 molecular orbitals of the type. Each C atom contributes 1 bond However the bond forms are not localised (DELOCALISED) between pairs of C atoms as in an alkene. The delocalised electrons from the bond result in resonance structure of benzene.

4.3 Co-ordinate bonding (dative covalent bonding)

Is formed when 1 atom provides BOTH the eneeded for COVALENT BOND

What is the term for both e- (pairs of e-) that is available for bonding? Sometimes atom with lone pairs tend to share ewith other element or ion which have an empty orbital or those with an incomplete outer shell Also known as coordinate bond with the symbol

Lone pair with UNFILLED orbital (ions) 1. Ammonium

OR
H + H N H H

Lone pair with INCOMPLETE orbital

Compounds with an incomplete outer shell tend to bond datively and form dimer (Eg: AlCl3 , BeCl2)

1. AlCl3 / Al2Cl6 dimer

At high temperature, Aluminium chloride sublimes (turns straight from a solid to a gas) at about 180C to AlCl3 At low temperature, 2 AlCl3 molecules form 1 Al2Cl6 (Dimers of AlCl3) Are able to combined because of the lone pairs eon the 2 Cl atoms

Each Cl atom has 3 lone pairs e-

1of the 3 lone pairs e- are used to form coordinate bonds with Al

2. BeCl2

4.5 Metallic bonding

In metals, the atoms are held together by metallic bonding to form a regular arrangement called lattice. In a metal, the bonding of e- are delocalized over the entire crystal (delocalised electrons) by losing their outer shell e- to become cation. Metal consist of a fixed position in a lattice of positive metal 'ions' surrounding by a 'sea' of delocalised electrons

The delocalized electrons hold the metal cations strongly since the metal cations and the electrons are oppositely charged The metallic bond is neither covalent nor ionic, but it is a strong bond (electrostatic bond) because most metals have relatively high melting points
The delocalized electrons are moving randomly, from place to place

It do not involve in transferring or sharing electrons with the neighboring atom to form cations, but instead the outer energy levels of the metal atoms overlap Fig 4.28 pg 60 Strength of metallic bonding increases with
Inc +ve charge on the ions Dec size of metal ions in the lattice Inc num of mobile e- per atom

Metallic bonding & the properties of metals

1. Most metals have high melting points (m.pt) and high boiling points (b.pt) 2. Metals conduct electricity
When metal is subjected to an electrical potential, the valence e- are free to move and hence all metals are very good conductors of electricity Conductivity across groups in the periodic table What about transition elements?

3. Metals conduct heat

Conduction of heat is due the vibrations in the crystal lattice by the delocalised e-

 4. metallic lustre and opaque because it has the shiny coating or covering and have lightreflective qualities on its surface The lustre, or shine, of metals is caused by the electrons reflecting light All pure metals reflect well However some metals do not seem to do so, like lead, iron, etc. which coated with a thin layer of oxide (rust). If this layer is scraped off, the reflective metal can be seen underneath

4.6 Intermolecular forces

3 types of INTERmolecular forces:

Van der Waals forces (VDW) (dispersion forces/ temporary dipole-induced forces) Permanent dipole-dipole forces Hydrogen bond (H-bond)

General trend of the strengths (Table 4.2 pg 61.): Ionic > covalent > H-bond > permanent dipoledipole> VDW

In order to understand how intermolecular forces work, we have to know about ELECTRONEGATIVITY and bond POLARITY

4.6.1 Electronegativity (EN)

Electronegativity is the ability of a particular atom, which is covalently bonded to another atom, to attract the bond pair of e- towards itself. It is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself The Pauling scale - use in quantifying electronegativity

Think: Group1 or Group 7 has higher electronegativity? Going down a group, electronegativity inc/dec?

So, which atom has the highest electronegativity?

Pauling scale: Higher value (non-metals): more attracted; relatively negative charge Lower value (metals): less attracted; relatively positive

Relating electronegativity to metals Metallic atoms have higher/lower electronegativity.

Most metals have EN of < 2 and most non-metals have EN >2.

Predicting the nature of the bond using EN. predict the nature of the chemical bond by looking at the difference of electronegativity value no electronegativity difference OR difference < 0.5 form non-polar bond; usually have to be the same atoms of identical electronegativity or different atoms but similar electronegativities; H2, Br2, Cl2, NCl

electronegativity difference from 0.5-2.0 form polar bond; usually from different atoms with different electronegativities; H2O, HCl
greater difference of electronegativity (> 2.0) leads to an ionic bond; NaCl, CaBr2

4.6.2 Polarity

When EN between 2 atoms are the same in covalent bonding, or the electrons density are equally share non-polar Cl Cl

When EN between 2 atoms are different, the more EN atom attracts the pair of e- in the bond towards it.
This partial charge; polar bond +result a permanent H Cl

Bond polarity is due to difference of EN. The bigger the diff in EN between 2 atoms, the more polarized the bond. Such as ionic bonds.

Polarity: Centre +ve charge does not coincide with the centre ve charge e- distribution is assymmetric The two atoms are partially charged (+ / -)

The shift of electron density in polar molecule can be symbolized by placing a crossed arrow ( ) to indicate the direction of the shift

HF

Dots & cross diagrams could explain polarity. Eg. C-F. Check EN values for both. Explain why using dots & cross.

Nuclear charge Distance Shielding (net +ve charge)

The polarity of molecule is generally measured quantitatively as dipole moment, which is the product of charge,
= d (unit = D, debye)

The dipole moment is defined as the product of a partial charges ( + and ) and distance (d).

The molecule would be non-polar due to = 0; but if the bond is polar, the molecule would be polar where it has 0

Polar molecules compound

When consisting of more than 2 atoms:

Polarity (dipole moment) of each bond Arrangement of bonds in the molecule

Molecules with unequal distribution of atoms and whose dipoles do not cancel each other are polar molecules. Molecular Dipole Moments are the vector sum of the individual bond dipole moments. They depend on the magnitude and direction (vector) of the bond dipoles

EXAMPLE
1. (carbonyl grp C=O) Methanal (Formaldehyde) and CO2. Formaldehyde is highly polar while carbon dioxide is nonpolar . Since CO2 is a linear molecule, the dipoles cancel each other.

Asymmetry

Symmetry

2. CH3Cl Chloromethane
H H H C Cl

0 Both C-Cl and C-H bonds are polar covalent. However the C-H bond contributions are small. Most of the dipole moment is due to the C-Cl bond.

Asymmetry

3. H2O
H H : O :

4. NH3 Ammonia
H H N H :

0 Asymmetry
EN of O atom > H => polar O-H bond Water is a bent molecule

Asymmetry
EN of N > H atom, causing N-H to be polar. NH3 Ammonia is a trigonal pyramidal

oxygen end has a partial ve charge; N end has a partial ve charge; whereas the H end has a partial + whereas the H end has a partial + charge. charge.

Are the bonds polar?

0.5 < Eneg diff < 2
EN differences present?

YES POLAR BONDS Is the molecule symmetrical?

NO NON POLAR BONDS NON-POLAR MOLECULE

NO POLAR MOLECULE

YES NON-POLAR MOLECULE

Type of molecule
Diatomic molecule, A2

Type of bond Non polar

Dipole moment
=0

Shape Linear, symmetry Linear, asymmetry Linear, asymmetry Linear, symmetry Trigonal planar, symmetry Trigonal planar, Asymmetry

Type of molecule
Non polar e.g. H2, Cl2 Polar e.g. HCl Polar e.g. HCN Non polar e.g. CO2, C2H2 Non polar e.g. BCl3

Polar
Polar Polar Polar

0
0 =0 =0

Triatomic molecule, AY2

Tetra-atomic molecule, AY3

Polar

Polar e.g. BFCl2

Type of molecule AY2E Penta-atomic molecule, AY4 AY3E AY2E2

Type of bond
Polar Polar Polar Polar Polar Polar

Dipole moment 0 =0 0 0 0 =0

Shape
Bent, asymmetry Tetrahedral, symmetry

Type of molecule Polar Non polar e.g. CH4

Tetrahedral, asymmetry
Pyramidal, asymmetry Bent, asymmetry Trigonal bypyramidal, symmetry Trigonal bypyramidal, asymmetry

Polar e.g. CH3Cl

Polar e.g. NH3 Polar e.g. H2O Non polar e.g. PCl5 Polar e.g. PCl4F

Hexa-atomic molecule, AY5 Polar 0

Type of molecule Hepta-atomic molecule, AY6

Type of bond Polar Polar

Dipole moment =0 0

Shape

Type of molecule

Octahedral, symmetry
Octahedral, asymmetry

Non polar e.g. SF6

Polar e.g. SF5Cl

Polarity and chemical reactivity

Using polarity for chemical reaction Example: triple bonds

Are they polar molecules? CO is use as a reducing agent (element who donate e-)

Example: Nucleophilic substitution of Bromoethane with OH- ions (pg 233)

Intermolecular forces

Deviation from the ideal gas law is due to weak forces of attraction between molecules These forces are responsible for the formation of the condensed phases, that are liquid and gases They are collectively known as Van der Waals forces There are 3 types:

Van der Waals forces (dispersion forces/ temporary dipole-induced

forces/London forces) Dipole-dipole forces Hydrogen bonding

Van der Waalss forces (VDW)

Also knows as dispersion forces / London forces/

All molecules experience VDW which result from the motion of electrons Average over time, e- distribution around an atom/molecule is symmetrical. But at a particular instant, by chance, the e- are concentrated in 1 region of the atom/molecule. A temporary dipole was set up.

This dipole could induce a dipole on neighbouring molecules. Hence the name temporary-induced dipole forces. (Figure 4.33 pg 63)

The strength of the dispersion forces depends on how easily the e- cloud of the atom/molecule could be induced/polarised
The further away the e- are from the nucleus, the easier it is to polarised the e- cloud.

Factors affecting VDW: 1. Higher no. of e-/p; the higher/lower the VDW???

2. Molecular shape / contact points bet molecules.

The more contact point, the higher/lower the VDW??? Elongated/linear molecules compared to branched molecules? Elongated molecules are more spread out, increasing the contact point bet molecules and are more easily polarised compared to small, compact molecules. What about surface area of molecules? What about increasing molecular weight?

So, when VDW is high? What does it mean/cause?

When VDW is high, B.pt / enthalphy of vaporisation (kJ/mol-1) is high.

Group 8
Electron arrangement Melting point Boiling point Atomic radius pm (10-12m) and nanometres nm (10-9m) 49 and 0.049 51 and 0.051 94 and 0.094 109 and 0.109 130 and 0.130 136 and 0.136

Chemical symbol and name

Atomic number

He helium Ne neon Ar argon Kr krypton Xe xenon Rn radon

2 10 18 36 54 86

2 2.8 2.8.8 2.8.18.8 2.8.18.18.8 2.8.18.32.18.8

-272oC , 1K -249oC , 24K -189oC , 84K -157oC , 116K -112oC , 161K -71oC , 202K

-269oC , 4K -246oC , 27K -186oC , 87K -152oC , 121K -108oC , 165K -62oC , 211K

M.pt and B.pt cannot be correlated simply to molecular weight or to the no. of e- in a molecule

Generally when comparing 2 molecules: Dealing with 2 factor (molecular weight and polar) Case 1 Estimate the B. pt for Silane SiH4and Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Compound
Molecular formula Dipole moment (D) Relative molecular mass Mr B. Pt (K)

Silane
SiH4 0 32.1 161.2

Hydrogen sulphide
H2S 0.97 34.1 212.3

With approximately the same molecular weight, more polar molecule has higher m.pt and b.pt. This is due to the addition of dipole-dipole attraction to the VDW.

Case 2 Estimate the B.pt for Chloromethane CH3Cl and Fluoromethane CH3F
Compound Molecular formula Dipole moment (D) Relative molecular mass Mr B. Pt (K) Chloromethane CH3Cl 1.87 50.5 248.8 Fluoromethane CH3F 1.85 34 194.6

When both molecules are polar, higher molecular weight molecule has higher m.pt and b.pt. This is due to the greater no. of e-, the stronger the VDW attraction.

Permanent dipole-dipole forces

exist between polar covalent molecule which due to the unequally distribution of the electrons; polarized have a permanent dipole where each element having permanent partial charge; dipole molecule Is the forces between 2 permanent dipole molecules A result of electrical interactions among dipole neighbouring molecules.

These forces can either be attractive or repulsive, depending on the orientation of the molecules

The additional partial ordering of molecules can cause a substance to persist as a solid or liquid state at temperatures than otherwise expected The net force in a large collection of molecules results from many individual interactions or both types.
These forces are significant only when molecules are in close contact

Example Dipole moment of HCl molecules, because of the force of attraction between oppositely charged particles, there is a small dipole-dipole force of attraction between adjacent HCl molecules
3.3 kJ/mol B.Pt = -85.0oC

HCl exist in what form at room temp?

Strength of dipole-dipole interaction between HCl? Bond strength between H and Cl atom? What bond?

The larger/smaller the dipole moment, the greater/lesser the dipole interaction strength?? Therefore, when dipole interaction strength increase, m.pt/B.pt ? What state?

When dealing with 2 factor (molecular weight and dipole-dipole forces) between molecules
Example Estimate the B.pt for Propane C3H8, Dimethyl ether CH3OCH3, Ethanenitrile CH3CN
Propane C3H8 0.1 44.1 231 Dimethyl ether CH3OCH3 1.3 46.07 248 Ethanenitrile CH3CN 3.9 41.05 355

Compound Molecular formula Dipole moment (D) Relative molecular mass Mr B. Pt (K)

The larger the dipole moment, the greater the strength of the dipole-dipole interaction.

Hydrogen bonds (-------)

Extra strong intermolecular, permanent dipolepermanent dipole attraction between molecules. Is form when 1 molecule whose H atom is covalently bonded tightly to a high EN atom (N, O, F) BETWEEN 1 molecule having an available lone pair e- from N, O, F H-bond arise because the N-H / O-H / F-H bonds are HIGHLY POLAR.

To determine the average no. of H-bonds formed per molecule depends on:
No. of H atom attached to N,O, F No. of lone pairs present

Students to draw H-bond bet (HF, NH3, H2O) molecules

B.Pt = 19.5OC

B.Pt = -33OC

When dealing with 2 factor (molecular weight and H-bond) between molecules Estimate the B.pt between Ethane and Methanol
Compound Molecular formula Relative Molecular Mass B.Pt (K) Ethane C2H6 30 184.6 Methanol CH3OH 32 337.2

The unique properties of water

Water is the best example of hydrogen bond with several unique properties Has the capability in dissolving many ionic compounds Known as hydration; the compound was said to be hydrated

The peculiar properties of water

1. Enthalphy change of vapourisation and B.pt. 2. Surface tension and viscosity 3. Ice is less dense than water

1. Enthalphy change of vapourisation and B.pt.

In general, higher molecular weight increases B.pt due to the dispersion (VDW) forces. Evident by Group 14 hydrides.

H2O, HF, NH3 have 10e- each. This shows that the H-bond strength does not depend on the polarisability of the molecule.

2. Surface tension and viscosity

It has comparatively high surface tension and viscosity Surface tension: property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. Due to Hbond exert a significant downward force at liquid surface Viscosity: measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. High due the H-bonding reduces waters ability to slide over each other.

3. Ice is less dense than water

Ice (solid of water) is less dense than water UNLIKE OTHER SOLID This is because the water molecules are bonded in 3D network where 1 water molecule is Hbonded with 4 other water molecule forming a tetrahedral lattice

Density = mass/volume

The repeating units of the tetrahedral lattice forming a hexagonal network and finally ice where the structure is more open, allowing the molecules to stay slightly apart

Trends in physical properties

Generally, when the molecular mass increases, melting and boiling point increases; e.g. alkane and alkene
However when the structure of the molecules become more branched, the boiling point decreases When the polarity of molecule increases, it will cause an increase in the boiling point; comparison between alcohol and alkane The presents of hydrogen bond will have effects on

Substance Ionic compounds

Physical state

Solubility

Electrical conductivity

Mostly soluble in water Do not conduct electricity in solid state, but will conduct electricity in molten or solution

Metal

Not soluble but some might react with water such as Na, Ca with water

Conduct electricity both in solid and molten state

Covalent compounds

Non-polar molecule insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvent Small H-bonded compounds are water soluble

Do not conduct electricity in either state

summary
Interacting molecules or ions
No

Are polar molecules involve?

Yes

No

Are ions involve?

Are polar Yes molecules and ions are both present?

Yes No

Are H atoms bonded to N, O, F?

No Van der Waals only e.g. H2, Cl2 Dipole-dipole Forces e.g. HCl, HCN

Yes Ion-dipole Ionic Forces Bond e.g. NaCl in e.g. NH4NO3 H2 O

Hydrogen Bond e.g. H2O, NH3

Increase in strength

Bond order, Bond length, Bond energy,

Bond order bonding electron pairs between two bonded atoms

Bond length Due to double bonds have greater quantity of ve charge between 2 atom, the double bonds are shorter than single bonds CO 143 pm > C=O 122 pm > CO 113 pm

Bond energy Bond energy is the energy needed to break 1 mole of a given bond in GASEOUS MOLECULE. It is always a +ve in value because energy is needed to break the bond Example

bond lengths increase with increasing atom size, and bond energy decreases.

Bond energy

VS.

B.pt/M.pt ????

Bond energy

B.pt/M.pt ????

Bond energy is the energy needed to B.Pt is the temp where both liquid break 1 mole of a given bond in and gaseous phase exists in GASEOUS MOLECULE. equilibrium at a particular external pressure.
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES/bond INTERMOLECULAR FORCES Covalent (single, double, triple bond) VDW, Dipole-dipole, H-bond What about Ionic and metallic bonding? The higher the bond energy, the higher the strength of the intramolecular forces; or vice versa The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the B.pt/Mpt. When the forces are stronger, it take more energy (heat) to break them apart