Chapter 8

Methods of Analysis and Selected Topics (dc)

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OBJECTIVES
Become familiar with the terminal characteristics of a current source and how to solve for the voltages and currents of a network using current sources and/or current sources and voltage sources. Be able to apply branch-current analysis and mesh analysis to find the currents of network with one or more independent paths. Be able to apply nodal analysis to find all the terminal voltages of any series-parallel network with one or more independent sources. Become familiar with bridge network configurations and how to perform - Y or Y - conversions.
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CURRENT SOURCES
In previous chapters, the voltage source was the only source appearing in the circuit analysis. This was primarily because voltage sources such as the battery and supply are the most common in our daily lives and in the laboratory environment. We now turn our attention to a second type of source, called the current source.
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CURRENT SOURCES
Although current sources are available as laboratory supplies, they appear extensively in the modeling of electronic devices such as the transistor. Their characteristics and their impact on the currents and voltages of a network must therefore be clearly understood if electronic systems are to be properly investigated.
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CURRENT SOURCES
The current source is often described as the dual of the voltage source. Just as a battery provides a fixed voltage to a network, a current source establishes a fixed current in the branch where it is located.
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FIG. 8.1 Introducing the current source symbol.

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CURRENT SOURCES
In general, a current source determines the direction and magnitude of the current in the branch where it is located. Furthermore, the magnitude and the polarity of the voltage across a current source are each a function of the network to which the voltage is applied.
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CURRENT SOURCES

FIG. 8.2 Circuit for Example 8.1.

FIG. 8.3 Network for Example 8.2.

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CURRENT SOURCES

FIG. 8.4 Example 8.3.

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SOURCE CONVERSIONS
The current source appearing in the previous section is called an ideal source due to the absence of any internal resistance. In reality, all sourceswhether they are voltage sources or current sourceshave some internal resistance in the relative positions shown in Fig. 8.5.
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SOURCE CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.5 Practical sources: (a) voltage; (b) current.

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SOURCE CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.6 Source conversion.

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SOURCE CONVERSIONS
It is important to realize, that the equivalence between a current source and a voltage source exists only at their external terminals.

FIG. 8.7 Practical voltage source and load for Example 8.4.

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SOURCE CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.8 Equivalent current source and load for the voltage source in Fig. 8.7.

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SOURCE CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.9 Two-source network for Example 8.5.

FIG. 8.10 Network in Fig. 8.9 following the conversion of the current source to a voltage source.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL We found that voltage sources of different terminal voltages cannot be placed in parallel because of a violation of Kirchhoffs voltage law.
Similarly, current sources of different values cannot be placed in series due to a violation of Kirchhoffs current law.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

However, current sources can be placed in parallel just as voltage sources can be placed in series.
In general, two or more current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single current source having a magnitude determined by the difference of the sum of the currents in one direction and the sum in the opposite direction. The new parallel internal resistance is the total resistance of the resulting parallel resistive elements.
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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

FIG. 8.11 Parallel current sources for Example 8.6.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

FIG. 8.13 Parallel current sources for Example 8.7. FIG. 8.12 Reduced equivalent for the configuration of Fig. 8.11.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

FIG. 8.15 Example 8.8. FIG. 8.14 Reduced equivalent for Fig. 8.13.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

FIG. 8.16 Network in Fig. 8.15 following the conversion of the voltage source to a current source.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

FIG. 8.17 Network in Fig. 8.16 reduced to its simplest form.

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CURRENT SOURCES IN SERIES

The current through any branch of a network can be only single-valued. For the situation indicated at point a in Fig. 8.18, we find by application of Kirchhoffs current law that the current leaving that point is greater than that enteringan impossible situation.
Therefore, current sources of different current ratings are not connected in series, just as voltage sources of different voltage ratings are not connected in parallel.
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CURRENT SOURCES IN SERIES

FIG. 8.18 Invalid situation.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS

FIG. 8.19 Demonstrating the need for an approach such as branch-current analysis.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

1. Assign a distinct current of arbitrary direction to each branch of the network. 2. Indicate the polarities for each resistor as determined by the assumed current direction. 3. Apply Kirchhoffs voltage law around each closed, independent loop of the network.
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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

4. Apply Kirchhoffs current law at the minimum number of nodes that will include all the branch currents of the network. 5. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for assumed branch currents.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.20 Determining the number of independent closed loops.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.21 Determining the number of applications of Kirchhoff s current law required.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.22 Example 8.9.

FIG. 8.23 Inserting the polarities across the resistive elements as defined by the chosen branch currents.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.24 TI-89 solution for the current I1 of Fig. 8.22.

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BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch-Current Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.25 Reviewing the results of the analysis of the network in Fig. 8.22.

FIG. 8.26 Example 8.10.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

The next method to be describedmesh analysisis actually an extension of the branchcurrent analysis approach just introduced. By defining a unique array of currents to the network, the information provided by the application of Kirchhoffs current law is already included when we apply Kirchhoffs voltage law. In other words, there is no need to apply step 4 of the branch-current method. The currents to be defined are called mesh or loop currents.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

FIG. 8.27 Defining the mesh (loop) current: (a) two-window network; (b) wire mesh fence analogy.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure
1. Assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each independent, closed loop of the network. It is not absolutely necessary to choose the clockwise direction for each loop current. In fact, any direction can be chosen for each loop current with no loss in accuracy, as long as the remaining steps are followed properly. However, by choosing the clockwise direction as a standard, we can develop a shorthand method (Section 8.8) for writing the required equations that will save time and possibly prevent some common errors.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.28 Defining the mesh currents for a two-window network.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

2. Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined by the assumed direction of loop current for that loop. Note the requirement that the polarities be placed within each loop. This requires, as shown in Fig. 8.28, that the 4 resistor have two sets of polarities across it.
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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure
3. Apply Kirchhoffs voltage law around each closed loop in the clockwise direction. Again, the clockwise direction was chosen to establish uniformity and prepare us for the method to be introduced in the next section.
a. If a resistor has two or more assumed currents through it, the total current through the resistor is the assumed current of the loop in which Kirchhoffs voltage law is being applied, plus the assumed currents of the other loops passing through in the same direction, minus the assumed currents through in the opposite direction. b. The polarity of a voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the assigned loop currents.
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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

4. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.29 Example 8.12.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.30 Example 8.13.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supermesh Currents

Occasionally, you will find current sources in a network without a parallel resistance. This removes the possibility of converting the source to a voltage source as required by the given procedure.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supermesh Currents

In such cases, you have a choice of two approaches.

The simplest and most direct approach is to place a resistor in parallel with the current source that has a much higher value than the other resistors of the network. The other choice is to use the supermesh approach.
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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supermesh Currents

FIG. 8.31 Example 8.14.

FIG. 8.32 Defining the mesh currents for the network in Fig. 8.31.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supermesh Currents

FIG. 8.33 Defining the supermesh current.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supermesh Currents

FIG. 8.34 Example 8.15.

FIG. 8.35 Defining the mesh currents for the network in Fig. 8.34.

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MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supermesh Currents

FIG. 8.36 Defining the supermesh current for the network in Fig. 8.34.

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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

As an aid in introducing the procedure, the network in Example 8.12 (Fig. 8.29) has been redrawn in Fig. 8.37 with the assigned loop currents.
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FIG. 8.37 Network in Fig. 8.29 redrawn with assigned loop currents.

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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure 1. Assign a loop current to each independent, closed loop (as in the previous section) in a clockwise direction. 2. The number of required equations is equal to the number of chosen independent, closed loops. Column 1 of each equation is formed by summing the resistance values of those resistors through which the loop current of interest passes and multiplying the result by that loop current.
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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure
3. We must now consider the mutual terms, which, as noted in the examples above, are always subtracted from the first column. A mutual term is simply any resistive element having an additional loop current passing through it. It is possible to have more than one mutual term if the loop current of interest has an element in common with more than one other loop current. This will be demonstrated in an example to follow. Each term is the product of the mutual resistor and the other loop current passing through the same element.
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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure
4. The column to the right of the equality sign is the algebraic sum of the voltage sources through which the loop current of interest passes. Positive signs are assigned to those sources of voltage having a polarity such that the loop current passes from the negative to the positive terminal. A negative sign is assigned to those potentials for which the reverse is true. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the desired loop currents.

5.

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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.38 Example 8.16.

FIG. 8.39 Example 8.17.

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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.40 Example 8.18.

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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.41 Using the TI-89 calculator to solve for the current I3. (a) Key entries; (b) shorthand form.

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MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.42 The resulting display after properly entering the data for the current I3.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

The methods introduced thus far have all been to find the currents of the network. We now turn our attention to nodal analysisa method that provides the nodal voltages of a network, that is, the voltage from the various nodes (junction points) of the network to ground. The method is developed through the use of Kirchhoffs current law in much the same manner as Kirchhoffs voltage law was used to develop the mesh analysis approach.
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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH) The number of nodes for which the voltage must be determined using nodal analysis is 1 less than the total number of nodes. The number of equations required to solve for all the nodal voltages of a network is 1 less than the total number of independent nodes.
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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

1. Determine the number of nodes within the network. 2. Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a subscripted value of voltage: V1, V2, and so on.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure
3. Apply Kirchhoffs current law at each node except the reference. Assume that all unknown currents leave the node for each application of Kirchhoffs current law. In other words, for each node, dont be influenced by the direction that an unknown current for another node may have had. Each node is to be treated as a separate entity, independent of the application of Kirchhoffs current law to the other nodes. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.

4.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.43 Example 8.19.

FIG. 8.44 Network in Fig. 8.43 with assigned nodes.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.45 Applying Kirchhoff s current law to the node V1.

FIG. 8.46 Example 8.20.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.47 Defining the nodes for the network in Fig. 8.46.

FIG. 8.48 Applying Kirchhoff s current law to node V1.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.49 Applying Kirchhoff s current law to node V2.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.50 Example 8.21.

FIG. 8.51 Defining the nodes and applying Kirchhoff s current law to the node V1.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.52 Applying Kirchhoff s current law to the node V2.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supernode Occasionally, you may encounter voltage sources in a network that do not have a series internal resistance that would permit a conversion to a current source. In such cases, you have two options.
The simplest and most direct approach is to place a resistor in series with the source of a very small value compared to the other resistive elements of the network. The other approach is to use the supernode approach
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NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Supernode

FIG. 8.53 Example 8.22.

FIG. 8.54 Defining the supernode for the network in Fig. 8.53.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure 1. Choose a reference node, and assign a subscripted voltage label to the (N - 1) remaining nodes of the network. 2. The number of equations required for a complete solution is equal to the number of subscripted voltages (N - 1). Column 1 of each equation is formed by summing the conductances tied to the node of interest and multiplying the result by that subscripted nodal voltage.
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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure
3. We must now consider the mutual terms, which, as noted in the preceding example, are always subtracted from the first column. It is possible to have more than one mutual term if the nodal voltage of current interest has an element in common with more than one other nodal voltage. This is demonstrated in an example to follow. Each mutual term is the product of the mutual conductance and the other nodal voltage, tied to that conductance.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure 4. The column to the right of the equality sign is the algebraic sum of the current sources tied to the node of interest. A current source is assigned a positive sign if it supplies current to a node and a negative sign if it draws current from the node. 5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the desired voltages.
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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.55 Example 8.23.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.56 Defining the nodes for the network in Fig. 8.55.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.57 Example 8.24.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.58 Defining the nodes for the network in Fig. 8.57.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.59 Example 8.25. FIG. 8.60 Defining the nodes for the network in Fig. 8.59.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.61 Reducing the number of nodes for the network in Fig. 8.59 by combining the two 5 resistors.

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NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

Nodal Analysis Procedure

FIG. 8.62 Example 8.26.

FIG. 8.63 Converting the voltage source to a current source and defining the nodes for the network in Fig. 8.62.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS

FIG. 8.64 Various formats for a bridge network.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS

FIG. 8.65 Standard bridge configuration.

FIG. 8.66 Assigning the mesh currents to the network in Fig. 8.65.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS

FIG. 8.67 Defining the nodal voltages for the network in Fig. 8.65.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS
TI-89 Calculator Solution
With the TI-89 calculator, the top part of the determinant is determined by the sequence in Fig. 8.68 (take note of the calculations within parentheses):

FIG. 8.68 TI-89 solution for the numerator of the solution for V1.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS
TI-89 Calculator Solution

FIG. 8.69 TI-89 solution for the denominator of the equation for V1.

FIG. 8.70 TI-89 solution for V1.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS
TI-89 Calculator Solution

FIG. 8.71 Substituting the short-circuit equivalent for the balance arm of a balanced bridge.

FIG. 8.72 Redrawing the network in Fig. 8.71.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS
TI-89 Calculator Solution

FIG. 8.73 Substituting the open-circuit equivalent for the balance arm of a balanced bridge.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS
TI-89 Calculator Solution

FIG. 8.74 Establishing the balance criteria for a bridge network.

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BRIDGE NETWORKS
TI-89 Calculator Solution

FIG. 8.75 A visual approach to remembering the balance condition.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

Circuit configurations are often encountered in which the resistors do not appear to be in series or parallel. Under these conditions, it may be necessary to convert the circuit from one form to another to solve for any unknown quantities if mesh or nodal analysis is not applied. Two circuit configurations that often account for these difficulties are the wye (Y) and delta () configurations depicted in Fig. 8.76(a). They are also referred to as the tee (T) and pi (), respectively,
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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.76 The Y (T) and () configurations.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.77 Introducing the concept of -Y or Y- conversions

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.78 Finding the resistance Ra-c for the Y and configurations.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.79 The relationship between the Y and T configurations and the and configurations.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.80 Example 8.27.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.81 The Y equivalent for the in Fig. 8.80.

FIG. 8.82 Example 8.28.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.84 Example 8.29. FIG. 8.83 The equivalent for the Y in Fig. 8.82.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.85 Substituting the Y equivalent for the bottom in Fig. 8.84.

FIG. 8.86 Example 8.30.

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Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.87 Converting the configuration of Fig. 8.86 to a Y configuration.

FIG. 8.88 Substituting the Y configuration for the converted into the network in Fig. 8.86.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

Y- (T-) AND -Y (-T) CONVERSIONS

FIG. 8.89 Substituting the converted Y configuration into the network in Fig. 8.86.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

APPLICATIONS
Constant-Current Alarm Systems

FIG. 8.90 Constant-current alarm system.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

APPLICATIONS
Constant-Current Alarm Systems

FIG. 8.91 Constant-current alarm system with electronic components.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

APPLICATIONS
Constant-Current Alarm Systems

FIG. 8.92 LM2900 operational amplifier: (a) dual-in-line package (DIP); (b) components; (c) impact of low-input impedance.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

APPLICATIONS
Wheatstone Bridge Smoke Detector

FIG. 8.93 Wheatstone bridge smoke detector: (a) dc bridge configuration; (b) outside appearance; (c) internal construction.
Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad
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APPLICATIONS
Schematic with Nodal Voltages

FIG. 8.94 Logic probe: (a) schematic with nodal voltages; (b) network with global connections; (c) photograph of commercially available unit.
Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

COMPUTER ANALYSIS
PSpice

FIG. 8.95 Applying PSpice to the bridge network in Fig. 8.67.

Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad

COMPUTER ANALYSIS
Multisim

FIG. 8.96 Using Multisim to verify the results in Example 8.18.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad
Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]