CHAPTER 8 MaterialRemoval Processes: Cutting

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 1

Cutting Processes

FIGURE 8.1 Examples of cutting processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 2

Orthogonal Cutting

FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process (also called orthogonal cutting).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 3

Chip Formation

FIGURE 8.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 4

Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

FIGURE 8.4 Basic types of chips produced in metal cutting and their micrographs: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the tool-chip interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge; (d) continuous chip with large primary shear zone; (e) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (f) discontinuous chip. Source: After M. C. Shaw, P. K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 5

Continuous Chip Formation

FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished) surface on the tool side of a continuous chip produced in turning.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 6

Chips Produced In Turning

FIGURE 8.8 Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 7

Oblique Cutting

FIGURE 8.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination angles.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 8

Right-Hand Cutting Tool

FIGURE 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b). Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 9

Terminology in Lathe Turning

FIGURE 8.19 Terminology used in a turning operation on a lathe, where f is the feed (in./rev or mm/rev) and d is the depth of cut. Note that feed in turning is equivalent to the depth of cut in orthogonal cutting (Fig. 8.2), and the depth of cut in turning is equivalent to the turning is equivalent to the width of cut in orthogonal cutting. See also Fig. 8.42.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 10

Types of Cutting Tool Wear

FIGURE 8.20 (a) Types of wear observed in cutting tools. The thermal cracks shown are usually observed in interrupted cutting operations, such as in milling. (b) Catastrophic failure of tools. (c) Features of tool wear in a turning operation. The VB indicates average flank wear. Source: (a) and (b) After V. C. Venkatesh. (c) International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 11

Crater and Flank Wear on a Tool

FIGURE 8.21 (a) Crater wear and (b) flank wear on a carbide tool. Source: J. C, Keefe, Lehigh University.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 12

Range of Surface Roughnesses

FIGURE 8.27 Range of surface roughnesses obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each group. (See also Fig. 9.27).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 13

Carbide Inserts
FIGURE 8.32 (a) Typical carbide inserts with various shapes and chip-breaker features. Round inserts are also available. The holes in the inserts are standardized for interchangeability. Source: Courtesy of Kyocera Engineered Ceramics, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering, Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (b) Methods of attaching inserts to a tool shank by clamping, (c) with wing lockpins, and (d) with a brazed insert on a shank.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 14

Relative Edge Strength

FIGURE 8.33 Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts with various shapes. Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles. Source: Kennametal, Inc.

FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparation of inserts to improve edge strength. Source: Kennametal, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 15

Properties of Tool Materials

FIGURE 8.38 Ranges of properties for various groups of tool materials. (See also various tables in this chapter.)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 16

Construction of Insert

FIGURE 8.39 Construction of polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride or diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 17

Process Turning

Characteristics Turning and f acing operations on all types of materials; requires skilled labor; low production rate, but medium to high with turret lathes and automatic machines, requiring less-skilled labor. Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics simil ar to turning; stiffness of boring bar important to avoid chatter. Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires boring and reaming for improved accuracy; high production rate; labor skill required depends on hole location and accuracy specified. Variety of shapes involving contours, flat surfaces, and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to medium production rate; requires skill ed labor. Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape. Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape. External and internal flat surfaces, slots and contours with good surface finish; costly tooling; high production rate; labor skill required depends on part shape. Straight and contour cuts on flats or structural shapes; not suitable for hard materials unless saw has carbide teeth or is coated with diamond; low production rate; requires only low labor skill.

Commercial tolerances (mm ) Fine: 0.05-0.13 Rough: 0.13 Skiving: 0.025-0.05 0.025

Machining Processes

Boring

Drilling

0.075

Mill ing

0.13-0.25

Pl aning

0.08-0.13

Shaping

0.05-0.13

TABLE 8.7 General characteristics of machining processes.

Broaching

0.025-0.15

Sawing

0.8

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 18

Lathe Operations
FIGURE 8.40 Various cutting operations that can be performed on a lathe.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 19

Designations for a RightHanded Cutting Tool

FIGURE 8.41 (a) Designations and symbols for a right-hand cutting tool; solid high-speed-steel tools have a similar designation. The designation right hand means that the tool travels from right to left, as shown in Fig. 8.19 (b) Square insert in a right-hand toolholder for a turning operation. A wide variety of toolholder is available for holding inserts at various angles. Thus, the angles shown in (a) can be achieved easily by selecting an appropriate insert and toolholder. Source: Kennametal, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 20

Turning Operation

FIGURE 8.42 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. cutting speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b) Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed force (in the direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 21

Range of Cutting Speeds

FIGURE 8.43 The range of applicable cutting speeds and fees for a variety of tool materials. Source: Valenite, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 22

Cutting Speeds in Turning

WORKPI ECE MATER IAL Aluminum alloys Cast iron, gray Copper alloys High-temperature alloys Steels Stainless steels Thermoplastics and thermosets Titanium alloys Tungsten alloys m/min 200-1000 60-900 50-700 20-400 50-500 50-300 90-240 10-100 60-150 CUTT ING SPEED ft/min 650-3300 200-3000 160-2300 65-1300 160-1600 160-1000 300-800 30-330 200-500

Note: (a) These speeds are for carbides and ceramic cutting tools. Speeds for high-speed steel tool are lower than indicated. The higher ranges are for coated carbides and cermets. Speeds for diamond tools are significantly higher than those indicated. (b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 0.5-12 mm (0.02-0.5 in.) (c) Feeds, f, are generally in the range of 0.15-1 mm/rev (0.006-0.040 in./rev).

TABLE 8.8 Approximate range of recommended cutting speeds for turning operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 23

Components of a Lathe

FIGURE 8.44 Schematic illustration of the components of a lathe. Source: Courtesy of Heidenreich & Harbeck.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 24

Machine Tool Parts Example

FIGURE 8.46 Typical parts made on computer-numerical-control machine tools.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 25

Chisel and Crankshaft-Point Drills

FIGURE 8.48 (a) Standard chisel-point drill, with various features indicated. (b) Crankshaft-point drill.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 26

Drills and Drilling Operations

FIGURE 8.49 Various types of drills and drilling operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 27

Speeds and Feeds in Drilling

WORKPI ECE MATERIAL SUR FACE SPEE D m/min ft/min
30-120 45-120 15-60 20-30 10-20 6-20 20-60 30-60 20-60 100-400 150-400 50-200 60-100 40-60 20-60 60-200 100-200 60-200

FEED, mm/rev (in./rev) DRILL DIAME T ER 1.5 mm 12.5 mm (0.060 in.) (0.5 in.)
0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.010 (0.0004) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.18 0.15 0.30 0.13 0.10 (0.012) (0.012) (0.010) (0.012) (0.007) (0.006) (0.012) (0.005) (0.004)

RPM 1.5 mm
6400-25,000 9600-25,000 3200-12,000 4300-6400 2100-4300 1300-4300 4300-12,000 6400-12,000 4300-12,000

12.5 mm
800-3000 1100-3000 400-1500 500-800 250-500 150-500 500-1500 800-1500 500-1500

Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys Copper alloys Steels Stainless steels Titanium alloys Cast irons Thermoplastics Thermose ts

Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and feeds also depends on the specific surface finish required.

TABLE 8.10 General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 28

Reamer and Tap Terminology

FIGURE 8.50 Terminology for a helical reamer.

FIGURE 8.51 Terminology for a tap.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 29

Milling Operations

FIGURE 8.53 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab-milling operation, showing depth of cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, tc; and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance to reach full depth of cut.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid Prentice Hall, 2003 page 30