F2 Introduction To Algebra

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text
PROGRAMME F2

INTRODUCTION
TO
ALGEBRA
Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions
Programme F2: Introduction to algebra
Powers
Logarithms
Fractions
Symbols other than numerals
Constants
Variables
Rules of algebra
Rules of precedence
Terms and coefficients
Collecting like terms
Similar terms
Expanding brackets
Nested brackets
Symbols other than numerals
An unknown number can be represented by a letter of the alphabet which
can then be manipulated just like an ordinary numeral within an arithmetic
expression. Manipulating letters and numerals within arithmetic expressions
is referred to as algebra.
Constants and variables
Sometimes a letter represents a single number. Such a letter is referred to as
a constant. Other times a letter may represent one of a collection of
numbers. Such a letter is referred to as a variable.
Rules of algebra
The rules of arithmetic, when expressed in general terms using letters of the
alphabet are referred to as the rules of algebra. Amongst these rules are
those that deal with:

Commutativity
Associativity
Distributivity
Rules of algebra
Commutativity
Both addition and multiplication are commutative operations. That is, they
can be added or multiplied in any order without affecting the result:
and x y y x xy yx + = + =
Note that the multiplication sign is suppressed:
is written as x y xy
Rules of algebra
Associativity
Both addition and multiplication are associative operations. That is, they can
be associated in any order without affecting the result:
( ) ( ) x y z x y z x y z + + = + + = + +
( ) ( ) x yz xy z xyz = =
Rules of algebra
Distributivity
Multiplication is distributive over addition and subtraction from both the
left and the right:
( ) and ( ) x y z xy xz x y z xy xz + = + =
( ) and ( ) x y z xz yz x y z xz yz + = + =
Rules of algebra
Distributivity
Division is distributive over addition and subtraction from the right but not
from the left:
( ) and ( ) x y z x y x z x y z x y x z + = + =
( ) and ( ) x y z x z y z x y z x z y z + = + =
Rules of precedence
The familiar rules of precedence continue to apply when algebraic
expressions involving mixed operations are to be manipulated
Terms and coefficients
An algebraic expression consists of alphabetic characters and numerals
linked together with the arithmetic operations. For example:

Each component of this expression is called a term of the expression. Here
there are two terms, namely the x term and the xy term.

The numbers 8 and 3 are called the coefficients of their respective terms.
8 3 x xy
Collecting like terms
Terms that have the same variables are called like terms and like terms can
be collected together by addition and subtraction. In this manner,
expressions can be simplified.
Similar terms
Terms that have variables in common are called similar terms and similar
terms can be collected together by factorization. The symbols the terms
have in common are called common factors. For example:

Here, b is a common factor that has been factorized out by the introduction
of brackets.

( ) ab bc b a c + = +
Expanding brackets
Sometimes it is desired to reverse the process of factorizing an expression
by removing the brackets (called expanding the brackets). This is done by:

(a) multiplying or dividing each term inside the bracket by the term outside
the bracket, but

(b) If the term outside the bracket is negative then each term inside the
bracket changes sign
Nested brackets
In expanding brackets where an algebraic expression contains brackets
nested within other brackets the innermost brackets are removed first.
Powers
Logarithms
Fractions
Powers
Powers
Rules of indices
Powers
Powers
The use of powers in the first instance (also called indices or exponents)
provides a convenient form of algebraic shorthand for repetitive
multiplication.
Powers
Rules of indices
Three basic rules are:
( )
1
2
3
n
m n m n
m n m n
m mn
a a a
a a a
a a
+
=
=
=
These lead to:
0
1
4 1
1
5
6
m
m
m
m
a
a
a
a a
=
=
=
Powers
Logarithms
Fractions
Logarithms
Powers
Logarithms
Rules of logarithms
Base 10 and base e
Change of base
Logarithmic equations
Logarithms
Powers
Any real number can be written as another number written raised to a
power. For example:

So that:

Here the process of multiplication is replaced by the process of relating
numbers to powers and then adding the powers a simpler operation.
2 3
9 3 and 27 3 = =
2 3 2 3 5
9 27 3 3 3 3 243
+
= = = =
Logarithms
Logarithms
If a, b and c are three real numbers where:

The power c is called the logarithm of the number a to the base b and is
written:
and 1
c
a b b = >
log spoken as
b
c a c is the log of a to the base b =
Logarithms
Rules of logarithms
The three basic rules are:

These lead to:
( ) log log log
( ) log log log
( ) log log
a a a
a a a
n
a a
a xy x y
b x y x y
c x n x
= +
=
=
log
( ) log 1
( ) log
( )
( ) log 1/log
a
x
x
a
a
a b
d a
e a x
f a x
g b a
=
=
=
=
Logarithms
Base 10 and base e
On a calculator there are buttons that provide access to logarithms to two
different bases, namely 10 and the exponential number e = 2.71828

Logarithms to base 10 are called common logarithms and are written
without indicating the base as log

Logarithms to base e are called natural logarithms and are written as ln
Logarithms
Change of base
The change of base formula that relates the logarithms of a number to two
different bases is given as:
log log log
a
b b
a x x =
Logarithms
Logarithmic equations
Logarithmic expressions and equations can be manipulated using the rules
of logarithms. Example:
( )
2
2
2 3
2 3
2
3
log 3log 2log 4
log log log 4
log
16
log
16
a a a
a a a
a
a
x x x
x x x
x x
x
x
| |
|
|
\ .
| |
|
|
\ .
+
= +
=
=
Powers
Logarithms
Fractions
Brackets are multiplied out a term at a time. For example:
2
2 2
3 2 2
3 2
(2 5)( 3 4)
2 ( 3 4) 5( 3 4)
2 6 8 5 15 20
2 11 23 20
x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x
+ + +
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
= + + +
Powers
Logarithms
Fractions
Fractions
Algebraic fractions
Addition and subtraction
Multiplication and division
Fractions
Algebraic fractions
A numerical fraction is represented by one integer divided by another.
Division of symbols follows the same rules to create algebraic fractions.
For example,
5
5 3 can be written as so can be written as
3
a
a b
b

Fractions
Addition and subtraction
The addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions follow the same rules as
the addition and subtraction of numerical fractions the operations can only
be performed when the denominators are the same.
Fractions
Multiplication and division
Just like numerical fractions, algebraic fractions are multiplied by
multiplying their numerators and denominators separately.

To divide by an algebraic fraction multiply by its reciprocal.
Powers
Logarithms
Fractions
Division is defined as repetitive subtraction and we set out the division of
one expression by another in the same way as we set out the long division of
two numbers. For example:
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
4 6 7
3 4 12 2 3 28
12 16
18 3
18 24
21 28
21 28

x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
+
+ +
+

+
+
- -
Powers
Logarithms
Common factors
Common factors by grouping
Useful products of two simple factors
Quadratic expressions as the product of two simple factors
Factorization of a quadratic expression
Test for simple factors
Common factors
The simplest form of factorization is the extraction of highest common
factors from a pair of expressions. For example:
( )
2 2 3 2
35 10 5 7 2 x y xy xy x y =
Common factors by grouping
Four termed expressions can sometimes be factorized by grouping into two
binomial expressions and extracting common factors from each. For
example:
2 6 3
(2 6 ) ( 3 )
2 ( 3 ) ( 3 )
( 3 )(2 )
ac bc ad bd
ac bc ad bd
c a b d a b
a b c d
+ + +
= + + +
= + + +
= + +
Useful products of two simple factors
A number of standard results are worth remembering:
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
( ) ( ) 2
( ) ( ) 2
( ) ( )( )
a a b a ab b
b a b a ab b
c a b a b a b
+ = + +
= +
+ =
Quadratic expressions as the product of two simple factors
2
2
2
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
a x g x k x g k x gk
b x g x k x g k x gk
c x g x k x g k x gk
+ + = + + +
= + +
+ = +
Factorization of a quadratic expression ax
2
+ bx + c when a = 1
The factorization is given as:

Where, if c > 0, f
1
and f
2
are factors of c whose sum equals b, both factors
having the same sign as b.

If c < 0, f
1
and f
2
are factors of c with opposite signs, the numerically larger
having the same sign as b and their difference being equal to b.
) )( (
2 1
2
f x f x c bx x + + = + +
Factorization of a quadratic expression ax
2
+ bx + c when a 1
The factorization is given as:

Where, if c > 0, f
1
and f
2
are two factors of |ac| whose sum equals |b|, both
factors having the same sign as b.

If c < 0 their values differ by the value of |b|, the numerically larger of the
two having the same sign as b and the other factor having the opposite sign.
c x f x f ax c bx ax + + + = + +
2 1
2 2
Test for simple factors
The quadratic expression:

Has simple factors if, and only if:
c bx ax + +
2
k k ac b integer some for 4
2 2
=
Learning outcomes
Use alphabetic symbols to supplement the numerals and to combine these symbols
using all the operations of arithmetic
Simplify algebraic expressions by collecting like terms and abstracting common
factors from similar terms
Remove brackets and so obtain alternative algebraic expressions
Manipulate expressions involving powers and multiply two expressions together
Manipulate logarithms both numerically and symbolically
Manipulate algebraic fractions and divide one expression by another
Factorize algebraic expressions using standard factorizations
Factorize quadratic algebraic expressions

F2 Introduction To Algebra

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STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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