CHAPTER

16
Magnetic Properties
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Magnetic Materials
Very important in electrical engineering Soft magnetic materials: Materials that can be easily magnetized and demagnetized. Applications: Transformer cores, stator and rotor materials. Hard magnetic materials: Cannot be easily demagnetized (permanent magnets). Applications: Loud speakers, telephone receivers.

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Magnetic Fields
Ferromagnetic materials: Iron, cobalt and nickel provide strong magnetic field when magnetized. Magnetism is dipolar up to atomic level. Magnetic fields are also produced by current carrying conductors. Magnetic field of a solenoid is H = 0.4 n i / l A/m n = number of turns l = length i = current
Figure 15.3a 16-3
After C.S. Barrett, W. D. Nix, and A. S. Teteman, Principles of Engineering Materials, Prentice -Hall, 1973, p.459.

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Magnetic Induction
If demagnetized iron bar is placed inside a solenoid, the magnetic field outside solenoid increases. The magnetic field due to the bar adds to that of solenoid - Magnetic induction (B) . Intensity of Magnetization (M) : Induced magnetic moment per unit volume B = 0H + 0 M = 0(H+M) 0 = permeability of free space = 4 x 10-7 (Tm/A) In most cases 0 > 0 H Therefore B =~ M
Figure 15.3b 16-4
After C.S. Barrett, W. D. Nix, and A. S. Teteman, Principles of Engineering Materials, Prentice -Hall, 1973, p.459.

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Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability = = B/H Magnetic susceptibility = Xm = M/H For vacuum = 0 = = 4 x 10-7 (Tm/A) Relative permeability = r = / 0 B = 0 r H Relative permeability is measure of induced magnetic field. Magnetic materials that are easily magnetized have high magnetic permeability.
Figure 15.4 16-5

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Types of Magnetism
Magnetic fields and forces are due to intrinsic spin of electrons. Diamagnetism: External magnetic field unbalances orbiting electrons causing dipoles that appose applied field. very small negative magnetic susceptibility. Paramagnetism: Materials exhibit small positive magnetic susceptibility. Paramagnetic effect disappears when the applied magnetic field is removed. Produced by alignment of individual dipole moments of atoms or molecules.
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Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic elements (Fe, Co, Ni and Gd) produce large magnetic fields. It is due to spin of the 3d electrons of adjacent atoms aligning in parallel directions in microscopic domains by spontaneous magnetization. Random orientation of domains results in no net magnetization. The ratio of atomic spacing to diameter of 3d orbit must be 1.4 to 2.7.
Figure 15.6 16-7

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Magnetic Moments of a Single Unpaired Electron

Each electron spinning about its own axis has dipole moment B B = Bohr magneton e = electron charge B = e h / 4 m h = planks constant In paired electrons m = electron mass positive and negative moments cancel. Antiferromagnetism: In presence of magnetic field, magnetic dipoles align in apposite directions . Examples:- Manganese and Chromium. Ferrimagnetism: Ions of ceramics have different magnitudes of magnetic moments and are aligned in antiparallel manner creating net magnetic moments.
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Effect of Temperature on Ferromagnetism

Above 0 K, thermal energy causes magnetic dipoles to deviate from parallel arrangement. At higher temperature, (curie temperature) ferromagnetism is completely lost and material becomes paramagnetic. On cooling, ferromagnetic domains reform. Examples: Fe 7700C Co 11230C Ni 3580C

Figure 15.9 16-9

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Ferromagnetic Domains
Magnetic dipole moments align themselves in parallel direction called magnetic domains. When demagnetized, domains are rearranged in random order. When external magnetic field is applied the domains that have moments parallel to applied filed grow. When domain growth finishes, domain rotation occurs.
Figure 15.11 16-10

After R.M. Rosw, L. A. Shepard, and J. Wulff, Structure and Properties of Materials, vol. IV: Wiley, 1996, p.193.

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Types of Energies that Determine the Structure

Most stable structure is attained when overall potential energy is minimum. Potential energy with a domain is minimized when all atomic dipoles are aligned in single direction. Magnetostatic energy: Potential energy produced by its external field. Formation of multiple domain reduces magnetostatic energy.

Figure 15.13 16-11

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Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy Energy

Magnetization with applied field for a single crystal varies with crystal orientation. Saturation magnetization occurs most easily for the <100> direction of BCC iron. Saturation magnetization occurs with highest applied field for <111> direction. Some grains of polycrystalline materials need some energy to rotate their resultant moment.
Figure 15.14

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This energy is magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy.

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Domain Wall Energy

Domain wall is the region through which the orientation of the magnetic moment changes gradually. 300 atoms wide due to balance between exchange force and magnetocrystalline anisotropy. Equilibrium wall width is width at which sum of two energies are minimum.

Figure 15.15 16-13

After C.S. Barrett, W. D. Nix, and A. S. Teteman, Principles of Engineering Materials, Prentice -Hall, 1973, p.485.

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Magnetostrictive Energy
Magnetostriction: Magnetically induced reversible elastic strain. Energy due to mechanical stress created by magnetostriction is called magnetostriction energy. It is due to change in bond length caused by rotation of dipole moments. Equilibrium domain configuration is reached when sum of magnetostrictive and domain wall energies are minimum.

Figure 15.16 16-14

Figure 15.17

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Magnetization and Demagnetization

Magnetization and demagnetization do not follow same loop. Once magnetized, remnant induction Br remains even after demagnetization. Negative field Hc (coercive force) must be applied to completely demagnetize. Magnetization loop is called hysteresis loop. Area inside the loop is a measure of work done in magnetizing and demagnetizing.
Figure 15.18 16-15

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Soft Magnetic Materials

Easily magnetized and demagnetized. Low coercive force and high saturation induction are desirable properties. Hysteresis energy losses: Due to dissipated energy required to push the domain back and forth. Imperfections increases hysteresis. Eddy current energy losses: Induced electric current causes some stray electric currents resulting from transient voltage. Source of energy loss by electrical resistance healing.

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Iron Silicon Alloys

Iron 3 to 4% Si alloys are commonly used soft magnetic materials. Silicon reduces electrical resistivity, decreases hysteresis, decreases magnetostriction. Silicon decreases saturation induction and curie temperature. Laminated core further reduces eddy current losses. Decrease in energy loss is also achieved by using grain oriented silicon sheet.

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Metallic Glasses
Noncrystalline domains. Soft magnetic properties, have combination of ferromagnetic materials with metalloids B and Si, Used in low energy core-loss transformers, magnetic sensors and recording heads. Produced by rapid cooling as a thin film on a rotating copper surface mold. Strong, hard, flexible and corrosion resistant. Easy movement of domain walls due to absence of grain boundaries. Low hysteresis loss.

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Nickel-Iron Alloys
Higher permeability at lower field. Used in highly sensitive communication. 50% Ni alloy : moderate permeability, high saturation induction. 79% Ni alloy: High permeability, low saturation induction. Low magnetoanisotropy and magnetostrictive energy. Initial permeability is increased by annealing in presence of magnetic field.

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Hard Magnetic Materials - Properties

High coercive force Hc and Induction Br. High hysteresis loss and difficult to demagnetize. Some energy of the field is converted to potential energy. Maximum energy product is a measure of magnetic potential energy = Max (B x H). Max (B x H) = area of largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the second quadrant of the hysteresis loop.
Figure 15.25 16-20

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Alnico Alloys
Alnico : Aluminum + Nickel + Cobalt High energy product, high remnant induction and moderate coercivity. Produced by casting or powder metallurgy. Structure: Single phase BCC at 12500C but decomposes to and at 750 to 8500C. is highly magnetic. If heat treated in magnetic field, becomes elongated Figure 15.26 and hence is difficult to rotate High coercivity.
After B. D. Cullity, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Addision- Wesley, 1972, p. 566

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Rare Earth Alloys

Very high maximum energy product and coercivity due to unpaired 4f electrons. SmCo5 single phase magnets: Coercivity is based on nucleation and pinning down of domain walls at surfaces and grain boundaries. Powder metallurgy fabrication: Particles pressed in magnetic field and sintered. Precipitation hardened Sm(Co,Cu)2.5 alloy: Part of Co substituted by Cu. Precipitate produced at low temperatures and domain walls are pinned at precipitates. Used in medical devices.
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Neodymium-Iron-Boron Magnetic Alloys

Produced by powder metallurgy and rapid solidification melt-spun ribbon process. Highly ferromagnetic Nd2Fe14B grains are surrounded by nonferromagnetic Nd rich intergranular phase. High coercivity and energy product due to difficulty in reverse nucleating. Used in automotive starting motors.

Figure 15.29 16-23

After J. J. Croat and J. F. Herbst, MRS Bull., June 1988, p.37.

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Iron-Chromium-Cobalt Magnetic Alloys

Structure and properties analogues to Alnico. 16% Fe, 28% Cr, 11% Co. Single phase at high temperature (12000C). Precipitates of chromium rich 2 phase forms below 6500C. Domain walls gets pinned into precipitate particles. Particles are elongated by forming to increase coercivity. Can be cold formed. Used in permanent magnets of modern telephones.
Figure 15.30 16-24
After S. Jin et al., J. Appl.Phys., 53:4300 (1982).

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Ferrites
Magnetic ceramics made by mixing Fe2O3 with other oxides and carbonates in powder form. Domain structure and hysteresis loop similar to ferromagnets but low magnetic saturation. Soft ferrites: MO Fe2O3 where M is Fe 2+, Mn 2+, Ni 2+ or Zn 2+. Inverse spinel structure. Cubic unit cells with 8 subcells. Only 1/8th of tetrahedral sites are occupied in normal spinal structure.
Figure 15.34 16-25

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Net Magnetic Moments in Inverse Spinel Ferrites

Fe 2+ ions 4 unpaired 3d electrons. Fe 3+ ions 5 unpaired 3d electrons. Each unpaired 3d electron has one Bohr magneton

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Properties and Applications of Soft Ferrites

Useful magnetic properties, good insulators. High electrical resistivity low eddy current losses. Applications: Low-signal, Memory-core, audiovisual and recording head applications. Recording heads are made up of Mn-Zn and Ni-Zn spinel ferrites. Magnetic core memories are used in some computers.

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Magnetically Hard Ferrites

General formula: MOFe2O3 (hexagonal crystal structure). Examples: Barium Ferrite (BaO.6Fe2O3) and Strontium Ferrite (SrO.6Fe2O3 ). Low cost, low density, high coercive force. High magnetocrystalline anisotropy. Magnetization takes place by domain wall nucleation and motion. Applications: Generators, relays, motors, loudspeakers and door closers.

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