Primary Treatment of

Sewage
Dr. Akepati S. Reddy
School of Energy and Environment
Thapar University
Patiala (PUNJAB) 147 004
INDIA
Primary Clarifiers
Flocculent Particle Settling
Particles do not settle as discrete particles instead during
sedimentation they coalesce and flocculate
Extent of coalescence or flocculation depend on
Overflow rate
Depth of settling basin
Velocity gradients in the system
Concentration of particles
Range of particle sizes
Settling characteristics of a suspension of flocculent particles
can be obtained by a settling column test
Settling column
Height: equal to the depth of the proposed settling tank
Diameter can be anything influences of the wall should be
taken care off sample required should be small enough
Provided with sampling ports
Settling column test
To begin with ensure uniform distribution of particle size from
top to bottom of the column
Duration of test should be equal to the settling time in the
proposed tank
Draw samples from the ports at various time intervals, analyze
for TSS and compute % removal
Plot % removal against time and depth and construct curves of
equal % removal
Overflow rates for various settling are determined by noting
where the curve intersect the x-axis



Flocculent Particle Settling
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
A
=
+
=

2
(%)
1
1
n n
n
h
n
R R
H
h
R
Settling Column Settling Profile Graph
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Purpose is removal of readily settleable solids and floating
material from wastewater
Usually give 50-70% suspended solids removal efficiency and
25-40% BOD removal (for municipal sewage)
Rectangular or circular sedimentation tanks are used
Two or more cylindrical or rectangular sedimentation tanks may
be used for allowing maintenance and repair
Multiple rectangular tanks require less land area than multiple
circular tanks and common walls reduce construction cost
Sedimentation tanks should include
Inlet section and Outlet section
Facilities and provisions for the settled sludge scrapping,
collection and removal
Facilities and provisions for the floating material entrapment,
skimming, collection and removal
Sedimentation tank can be considered to include Settling
zone and Sludge zone
Flow pattern is radial with central feed arrangement
Has a center well of 15-20% of the tank diameter and 1.0 to 2.5 m
depth is used
Center well has a tangential energy dissipating inlet
wastewater is discharged into the well within the upper 0.5-0.7 m
at 0.3 to 0.45 m/sec flow velocity
Solids removal mechanisms
Smaller tanks have hopper bottom with >45 inclination with the
horizontal
3.6-9.0 m diameter tanks have solids removal equipment supported
on beams spanning the tank
Larger diameter tanks have a central pier supporting the
mechanism and is reached by a walkway or bridge
Bottom of the tank is sloped at 1 in 12 to 64 or lesser
Solids are scrapped to the center and removed
Clarified liquid is skimmed off over weirs into a collection trough
Circular Primary Sedimentation Tank
Clarified sewage
Collection trough
Scum retaining baffle
Distribution baffle
of central well
Scrapper arm
Skimmer blade
Central well
Central pier
Influent pipe
Sludge draw-off pipe
Central rotating
equipment
Sludge trough
Tangential openings in the pier
for the distribution of the influent
Slope 1 in 12
Side wall
of clarifier
0.5m
0.3m
0.3m
0.3m
0.6m
Central pier
Sludge trough
0.5 m
1.5 m
0.5 m
Sludge draw-off pipe
Influent pipe
Primary clarifier
Section to show side wall with
clarified sewage collection trough
Bottom sludge trough and outlet
3.0 m
Inlet
Full width inlet channels with inlet weirs can introduce vertical
velocity component spreading into the sludge hoppers (provided at
the inlet end)
Inlets with submerged ports/orifices (velocities in the ports/orifices
are in the range of 3-9 m/min.)
Inlet channels with wide gates and slotted baffles
Inlet baffles can be used to reduce high initial velocities and
distribute flow width wise usually extend from 150 mm below and
300 mm above the water surface
Outlet
Clarified effluent is collected into a collection trough through an
overflow weir
Floating material or settled suspended solids should not be washed
out with the clarified effluent
Floating material retaining or entrapping baffle is provided
Weir length is designed to avoid washout out of sludge
Rectangular
Primary Sedimentation Tanks
Facilities and provisions for the settled sludge scrapping,
collection and removal
Settled sludge is collected at the inlet end
Chain and flight solids collectors
Have a pair of endless conveyor chains
Scraper flights of wood or fiberglass, running full width of the
tank and attached to the chains at 3 m interval
The settled solids are scrapped
to solids hoppers In case of small tanks multiple hoppers are
used in larger tanks
to a transverse trough in case of large tanks - troughs in turn have
cross collectors
Rectangular
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Traveling bridge type collectors
Travel up and down the tank on rubber wheels or on rails
supported on the sidewalls
Scrapper blades are suspended from the bridge (returning
scraper blades lifted free of the solids blanket)
Facilities and provisions for floating material entrapment,
skimming, collection and removal
Floating scum is collected at the effluent end
Floating scum is skimmed and carried to the effluent end and
entrapped for avoiding overflow into the clarified effluent trough
Flights returning at the liquid surface can be used
Water showers can be used to push forward the floating scum
Baffle is provided in front of the overflow weir for the scum
entrapment until removed
Rectangular
Primary Sedimentation Tank
In small tanks scum draw-down facility consisting of a
horizontal, slotted pipe that can be rotated by a lever or screw
can be used
Limitation - creates large volume of scum liquor
Transverse rotating helical wiper attached to a shaft can also
be used for scum removal
Scum is removed from the water surface and moved over an
inclined apron for discharge to a cross-collecting scum trough
Other provisions and facilities
Tanks may sloping bottom towards the influent end
Influent end has sludge hoppers or sludge trench
Scum pit is provided for storing the scum liquid removed
Sludge pump, piping and tank may be there to remove the collected
sludge from the sludge hopper or trench
Rectangular
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Design of Primary Clarifier
Overflow rate and hydraulic retention time obtained from the
settling test and settling profile diagram are used to find
surface area and depth of the clarifier
Safety factors of 1.25 is usually used to take into account
Inlet and outlet disturbances
Disturbances created by the rotating mechanism to scrap the
settled sludge and to collect the floating scum
Wind blow effects
Temperature variations
Flow short-circuiting
Design also takes into account the following:
Horizontal flow velocity (below the scour velocity)
Weir overflow rate (below a limit to avoid density currents)
Weir overflow balancing to avoid short-circuiting problems
Flooding of collection trough
Detention time 1.5 to 2.5 hours (2.0 hr.)
Overflow rate
Average flow 30-50 m
3
/m
2
.day (40) 24-32 (26)
Peak flow 80-120 m
3
/m
2
.day (100) 48-70 (60)
Weir loading 125-500 m
3
/m.day (250)
Rectangular tanks
Depth 3-4.9 (4.3)
Length 15-90 (24-40)
Width 3-24 (4.9-9.8)
Flight speed 0.6-1.2 m/min (0.9)
Circular tank
Diameter 3-60 (12-45)
Bottom slope 1 in 16 to 1 in 6 (1 in 12)
Flight speed 0.02-0.05 rpm (0.03)
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Short circuiting and hydraulic stability
Tracer studies can be used for determining short-circuiting
problems
Method of influent flow distribution can also affect short circuiting
Temperature difference of 1C between incoming wastewater
and wastewater of the tank can cause density current
Wind blowing across the top of an open sedimentation tank can
cause circulation cell to form this reduces effective
volumetric capacity of the tank
Surface loading rates (overflow rates)
There can be regulations prescribing limits to surface loading rates
Overflow rates must be set low enough to ensure satisfactory
performance at peak rates of flow
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Detention time
Solids reaching the settling tank are susceptible to flocculation
Flocculation is aided by eddying motion of fluid within the tank
Level of flocculation depends on the time elapsed (detention time)
In cold climates because of increase in water viscosity detention
time required also increases (1.38 time more HRT for 10C water
that when temperature is 20C)
Weir loading rates
Have little effect on efficiency of primary settlign tanks
Primary sludge scum characteristics and quantities
Factors influencing are
Characteristics of untreated water (strength and freshness)
Period of sedimentation
Conditions of the deposited solids
Period between solids removal operations
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Primary Sludge
Primary clarifier is designed for a specified % removal of TSS
From knowing the TSS and flow rate of the influent sewage
primary sludge generated can be quantified
TSS of the sewage is comprised of inorganic TSS, VSS and
Biodegradable VSS
Biodegradable VSS contributes BOD and this is 50-60% of the
total BOD for municipal sewage
Primary clarifier through removing the Biodegradable VSS
contributes to BOD removal
BOD removal in the primary clarifier is typically 35-45%
If BOD removal in the primary clarifier is known, one can find
out the biodegradable fraction of the primary sludge
BOD removal can be expressed as BODu removal and BODu
removal as TSS equivalent removal
The fraction of biodegradable VSS in the TSS is assumed to
remain the same even in the clarified effluent
If consistency of the primary sludge is known even volume of
the primary sludge can be calculated
Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic Ponds
Shallow, manmade anaerobic basins of waste stabilization
pond systems (series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation
ponds)
Used to treat domestic or municipal wastewater to
Remove and stabilize suspended solids
Remove biodegradable organic matter, BOD
Represent sustainable natural effluent treatment systems
Low cost, low energy, and low maintenance systems, and do
not require skilled manpower
Construction involves earth moving, pond lining and pond
embankment protection, and pond inlets and outlets
Operation and maintenance requirements are minimal (repair of
embankments, cutting embankment grass, removing scum and
vegetation, keeping both inlet and outlet clear, etc.) and requires
only unskilled but carefully supervised labour
Cheapest and even land cost may not be acting against

Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic ponds represent primary treatment
sludge stabilization is add on feature
patogen removal (helminth eggs) is coincidental
Can be easily scaled down to small scale applications
Robust systems (withstand organic & hydraulic shocks and
copes up well with heavy metals upto < 60 mg/L)
Principal requirements are sufficient land, and soil with low
coefficient of permeability (<10
-7
)
Suited to tropical and sub-tropical countries, like india
temp. (high throughout) is favourable
Inexpensive land, restricted foreign currency availability and
shortage of skilled manpower favour the use
Disadvantages
Requires more land (1-2 day HRT)
Potential odour and mosquito nuisance
Adverse environmental impacts (ground water pollution)

Preliminary Treatment Required
Unless very small, the anaerobic pond must be preceeded by
screening and grit removal facilities
Provisions may be made for
flow measurement and recording
Diverting the flow beyond 6 times to dry weather flow into
stormwater and receiving water course
Allowing a maximum of 3 times to dry weather flow into
anaerobic ponds and diverting rest into facultative ponds
Bypassing the anaerobic pond
Anaerobic Ponds
Small unmixed basins similar to uncovered septic tanks
functioning to settle and stabilize particulate organic matter
Very effective in removing heavy metals and in degrading
organic compounds like phenols
Mainly due to odour problems, often not used
primary facultative ponds or aerated lagoons or UASBs are preferred
Depth is 2-5 m (3 m typical) ground conditions and local
excavation costs actually influence the depth
Has sludge deposited at the bottom and scum layer at the top
(scum layer can increase fly breeding!)
Single anaerobic pond is sufficient for wastewater with BOD
5

<1000 mg/L
higher BOD
5
requires a second pond in series
Typical TSS and BOD removals for domestic wastewater are
50-70% and 30-75% respectively

Anaerobic Ponds
Involves
Hydrolysis of particulate organic matter
Fermentative conversion of organic matter into VFA
Decomposition of VFA into acetic acid and H
2
Methanogenesis - very sensetive to VFA accumulation and
associated pH drop
If sulfates & nitrates are present sulfate reduction and
denitrification rather than methanogenesis will occur
Release biogas (methane and CO
2
) and even ammonia


Biogas can be recovered from covered anaerobic ponds -
floating plastic membrane of three layers is usually used
Top high tensile UV-resistant geomembrane
Middle layer 12.5 mm thick polyfoam insulation and flotation
Base layer of high density polyethylene welded to the base

3 2 4 2
8
3
4 8 2 8
3
4 8 2 4
3
2 4
dNH CO
d b a n
CH
d b a n
O H
d b a
n N O H C
d b a n
+
|
.
|

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|
+ + +
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|
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+ +
High strength, rapid VFA production and accumulation, and
insufficient buffering capacity can prove problematic to the
stabilization process

Municipal sewage has high buffering capacity
Anaerobic Stabilization Process
The stabilization process is influenced by
Temperature - works well in warmer climate (20-45C range,
within which methane production increases by 7 fold with
temp. increase by 5C
HRT (typical is 1 day and may depend on wastewater
strength)
BOD loading rate (volumetric loading is used as the basis for
design and 350 g/m3.day is taken as the upper limit)
pH - optimal range is 6-8 (optimal pH is 7) - very sensitive to
pH <6.8 - adequate buffering capacity is very important
Sulfide stabilization process produces sulfide from sulfate
Inhibitory to methanogens at 50-150 mg/L level - sulfide at 10-
12 mg/L level is lethal to vibrio cholerae (disinfection!)
Responsible for odour problems
Small amount of sulfide is beneficial react with heavy metals
and removes as metal sulfide precipitates
Anaerobic Stabilization Process
The stabilization process is influenced by
Ammonia: toxic to the process (50% growth inhibition at 25-
30 mg/L level and very strong inhibition at >80 mg/L)
Free ammonia (which occurs at higher pH) is more toxic than
ammonium ions
Toxic compounds - heavy metals and chloro-organics are
inhibitory
Oxygen is also potentially toxic
Nutrients:
Degree of mixing:
Odour Problem
Main cause is sulfide (H
2
S) - caused by the release of H
2
S gas
into atmosphere
H
2
S is present in the pond contents as H
2
S gas, as bisulfide ions
and as sulfide ions
Relative concentrations are governed by pH (at 7.5 pH non-
odourous bisulfide is predominant
Odour problem can be reduced by
Raising the pH to around 8 by adding lime
Recirculating oxygen rich effluent and forming aerobic top layer
(oxidizes odorous sulfide)
Stimulating scum layer development (spread thin layer of straw)
Reducing organic loading rates (or increasing depth!)
Preventing short circuiting and avoiding dead zones
For properly designed pond, odour (due to H
2
S!) is not a
problem if the sulfate in wastewater is <500 mg/L
Treatment Mechanisms
Suspended solids
Sedimentation
Hydrolysis and stabilization
Organic matter (or BOD)
Sedimentation (biodegradable VSS) and subsequent anaerobic
digestion
25-50% of the applied BOD may be released as methane
Bleeding of BOD back into the effluent can also occur
Nutrients
Nitrogen removal (TKN)
Sedimentation of organic-N
Hydrolysis of organic-N into ammonical-N
Assimilation of ammoical-N and use as nutrient in biosynthesis
Release of ammonia into the atmosphere
Phosphorus removal
Sedimentation as both organic and inorganic phosphorus

Treatment Mechanisms
Pathogen removal
Fecal coliform removal
Adsorption to particles and subsequent sedimentation (major
contributor)
Natural decay or disinfection
Occurs by a combination of processes via complex interaction
of various adverse environmental factors - Starvation due to
lack of nutrients
Aquatic environment
Viruses
Apparently removed by adsorption on to settlable solids and
consequent sedimentation
Helminth eggs & protozoan cysts
Removed by sedimentation
Most removal takes place anaerobic and facultative ponds

Design of Anaerobic Ponds
Designed for BOD removal (removal of nutrients and pathogens
is coincidental)
The pond is sized on the basis of volumetric organic loading (can
be 100-350 g/m3.day)
Temperature is the key design parameter - mean ambient air
temperature of coldest month is used
For <10C 100 g/m
3
.day and 350 g/m
3
.day at 25C
Upper limit to the volumetric BOD loading is determined by
odour emissions and minimum pH threshold value optimum
pH for methanogenesis is 6-8
Loading should be >100 g/m3 for maintaining anaerobic
conditions
HRT is 1 to 3 days for municipal sewage (1 day for the sewage
with <300 mg/L BOD
5
at >20C)


Temp.
T (
o
C)
Volumetric
Loading (g/m
3
d)
BOD
removal
(%)
<10 100 40
10-20 20T 100 2T + 20
20-25 10T + 100 2T + 20
>25 350 70
Design of Anaerobic Ponds
Sludge accumulation occurs in the anaerobic pond, and
decreases its HRT and necessitates timely desludging
When sludge occupies 1/3
rd
volume of the pond then
desludging is usually required
Frequency of desludging can be estimated
Properly designed can achieve 40% BOD removal at <10C and
>70% at 25C
Removal of fecal coliforms can be estimated by


Helminth eggs removal is fairly effective (upto 90%) the
removal is by plain sedimentation

( )
2
0085 . 0 49 . 0 exp 41 . 0 1 u u + = R
u is HRT of anaerobic pond
R is removal efficinecy
( )
an T B
rw
an
K
N
N
u
) (
1+
=
( )
( ) 20
) (
19 . 1 6 . 2

=
T
T B
K
u is HRT of anaerobic pond
Design of Anaerobic Ponds
Nitrogen in the treated effluent
Treated effluent contains mostly ammonical-N and small
amount of organic-N (of the bacterial biomass leaving the pond
as TSS)
Phosphorus in the treated effluent
Difficult to predict
Some may be lost as insoluble P into settled sludge some may
also be released from the settled sludge
A small fraction may be used in the anaerobic biosynthesis
Effluent TSS
Difficult to estimate
May depend on the outlet design, effluent turbulence level at
the outlet zone, HRT, etc.
Suitably assumed in the light of the out let design, HRT and the
local turbulence level


Physical Design
Location/siting
The pond should be located >200 m downwind from the
community and from the likely areas of future expansion
To discourage people from visiting the site
To give assurance to public against the unlikely odour problem
Should not be located within 2 km of airports (birds attracted
to the ponds can constitute risk to air traffic)
Geotechnical investigations of the site
Needed to ensure correct embankment design and to
determine whether the pond requires lining or not
Includes
Determination of maximum height of the groundwater table
Collection of soil samples representing the soil profile up to a
depth 1.0 m greater than the envisaged pond depth
Analysis of soil samples for particle size distribution; coefficient
of permeability; maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content; Atterberg limits; organic content, etc.

Physical Design: Embankments
Embankment design should allow vehicle access for
maintenance
Better use the soil excavated from the site in the
embankments construction
Organic soils and medium to coarse sands are not suitable
Compact the soil in 150-250 mm layers to 90% of its
maximum dry density
coefficient of permeability should become <10
-7
m/s
Ascertain slope stability (standard soil mechanics procedures
for small earth dams can be used)
Plant slow-growing rhizomatous grass to increase the stability
Protect external embankments from storm water erosion
(Provide adequate drainage!)
Protect internal embankments from erosion by wave action
(precast concrete slabs or stone rip-rap at TWL
TWL: Top water level

Physical Design: Pond Lining
Seepage can be related to Coefficient of Permeability (k) as





When in situ k is >10-6 m/sec. then lining of ponds is needed
K <10-9 m/sec. indicates that the ponds seal naturally
K <10-9 m/sec. indicates no risk of ground water contamination
Portland cement (8 kg/m2) or plastic membranes or 150-300
mm layer of low permeability soil can be used as pond lining
h
l
A
Q
k
S
A
A
=
. 86400
k is coefficient of permeability (m/sec.)
Q
s
is seepage loss (m
3
/day)
A is pond area (m
2
)
l is depth of soil above the aquifer (or more
permeable stratum) in meters
h is l plus pond water depth in meters
Physical Design: Pond Geometry
Usually rectangular with variable length to breadth ratio (L to
B ratio) can be gently curved if desired for aesthetic reasons
L to B ratio should be 2-3 to 1 breadth is kept <24 m (imposed
by excavators and desludging machinery)
Pond areas are estimated for mid water depth - constructor
needs both pond bottom and top dimensions and depth
Volume can be related to TWL dimensions by





Pond liquid depth can be 2-5 m for anaerobic ponds
( )( ) ( )( ) | | sD W sD L sD W sD L LW
D
V
a
+ + = . 4 2 . 2
6
V
a
is liquid volume of the pond
L and W are top water level length and width
D is depth and S is internal horizontal slope of embankment
Physical Design: Pond Geometry
The ponds should be provided with freeboard to prevent
wind induced waves overtopping the embankment -
Freeboard depends on the pond area
0.5 m for ponds of <1 hectare area
0.5 to 1.0 m for ponds of 1-3 hectares area
For ponds of >3 hectares area freeboard is calculated by


2 or more parallel ponds are usually provided
Multiple systems need splitting of preliminary treated
wastewater into equal parts (use weir penstocks)
( ) 1 log
2
1
10
= A F
F is freeboard in meters
A is pond area at TWL in m
2
Physical Design: inlet and outlet structures
Relative position of inlet and outlet matters in minimizing
hydraulic short-circuiting
Single inlet and single outlet can usually be sufficient
Locate the inlet and outlet away from the base of embankment
Locate them in the diagonally opposite corners of the pond
Inlets and outlets should be simple and inexpensive and
should permit collection of pond samples with ease
Inlets should discharge well below the liquid level (to prevent
scum disturbance and to minimize odour problems)
Protect outlets against scum discharge (provide scum guard)
Scum guard depth determines effluent take off level
Effluent take off should be below the surface crust and above
the bottom sludge recommended is 0.3 m
Depth of flow over the outlet overflow weir is related to the weir
loading by

2
3
0567 . 0 h q =
q is weir loading rate in L/m.sec.
h is depth of flow in mm
Physical Design
Consider using baffles at the inlets and the outlets
To avoid short-circuiting
To avoid disturbing of the scum layer
To shield the outlet from scum entry
Bypass to anaerobic ponds is needed
facilitates desludging of anaerobic ponds
If needed make provisions for recirculating and mixing the
final effluent with the influent after preliminary treatment
Needed to achieve odour control specially when the influent is
septic (upto 50% may be recirculated)
Surround the ponds by a chain link fence and provide
padlocked gates
Post warning notices indicating the hazards


Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
(UASB) Reactor
Anaerobic Treatment Process
UASB Reactor
Developed in 1970s by Prof. Gatze Lettinga, The Netherlands
Suitable for high strength wastewater still used for domestic
sewage in warm climates
Differs from other anaerobic reactors in
Existence of granular sludge (resistant to toxic shocks) with
High mechanical strength & good settling properties (30-80 m/hr.)
High methanogenic activity (0.5-2 COD/VSS.day)
Internal 3-phase GSL (gas-solid-liquid) separator system
Advantages
Compact and require less land
Low energy consumption, low operating costs and Satisfactory COD
removal efficiencies (65-75%)
Low sludge production, and high levels of concentration and good
dewatering sludge
Disadvantages include bad odours, Inability to tolerate toxic
loads; Start-ups requiring s quite long time; and wastewater
needs further treatment

UASB Reactor
A primary treatment unit clarification sewage occurs
Stabilization of the sludge also occurs
To some extent even secondary treatment occurs
UASB reactor includes two zones
Reactor zone
Sludge bed zone
Sludge blanket zone
Contain granular or flocculant sludge
Settling zone
3-phase separator
Inclusive of Gas system and Effluent system
Also includes
Influent distribution system
Flow division and distribution boxes
Distribution tubes and necessary piping and fittings
Sludge discharge system
Provisions for sampling

UASB Reactor
Raw sewage inlet
Division box
Level-1
Division box
Level-2
Division box
Level-2
Division box
Level-2
Distribution
box
UASB Reactor-A UASB Reactor-B
UASB Cell-B5
UASB Cell-B4
UASB Cell-B3
UASB Cell-B2
UASB Cell-B1
UASB Cell-A5
UASB Cell-A4
UASB Cell-A3
UASB Cell-A2
UASB Cell-A1
Treated effluent
UASB Reactor
Sewage inlet
Biogas outlet Biogas outlet
Distribution box
Distribution pipes
Effluent trough
Biogas collection tunnel Biogas collection tunnel
Diflector
Diflector pillar
Sludge bed Sludge bed
Sludge blanket Sludge blanket
Sludge drains
Sampling ports
Diflector
Clarification
zone
Clarification
zone
Clarification
zone
Clarification
zone
Reactor zone Reactor zone
Basis for Design
There are no mathematical models and no clear guidelines for
the design empirical equations are used in the design
Two approaches, organic loading rate approach and upflow
velocity approach, are followed in the design
Organic loading rate approach is followed when COD of
wastewater is > 5000-15000 mg/L
Typical range of organic loading rate is 4-12 kg COD /m
3
.day
(average loading is 10 kg COD/m
3
.day)
Up-flow velocity approach is followed when COD is <5000 mg/L
followed for municipal sewage
Typical up-flow velocity is 0.6-0.9 m/hr. (Volumetric hydraulic
loading rate is < 5 m
3
/m
3
.day and HRT is 4-12 hours)
HRT, sludge concentration in the sludge blanket and in the
sludge bed, minimum SRT required and velocity through the
aperture are also considered in the design
Design of UASB for Sewage
In case of domestic sewage, when temperature is >15C, if
sufficient alkalinity is available,
The organic loading rate can be >1.5 kg/m
3
.day (2.5 to 3.5
kg/m
3
.day)
HRT can be >4-6 to 16 hours
Organic loading rate for the domestic sewage and for the
wastewaters with COD <1000 mg/l, is 2.5 to 3.5 kg/m
3
.day
higher organic loading rates result in excessive hydraulic loads,
and higher up-flow velocities

Sewage
temperature
Hydraulic detention time (HRT)
For average flow For peak flow
16-19 10-14 7-9
20-26 6-9 4-6
>26 >6 >4
Design of UASB for Sewage
Biological loading rates
During start-up, the biological loading rate may be maintained
in the range of 0.05 to 0.15 kg COD per kg VSS.day
Excessive loading rates can affect process stability (pH and VFA)
Maximum biological loading rates depend on the
methanogenic activity of the sludge
for domestic sewage 0.3 to 0.4 kg COD/kg VSS.day is the limit
Upflow velocity
Maximum upflow velocities depend on the type of sludge
present and the organic loading rates applied
For sewage, granular sludge is not formed and reactor is
designed for 0.5 m/hr. upflow velocity and 4 hour HRT
For the flocculant sludge and for the organic loading rate of 5-6
kg COD/m
3
.day average upflow velocity is 0.5 to 0.7 m/hr.
0.9 - 1.1 m/hr. for peak flows (upto 10 m/hr for granular sludge)
can be upto 1.5 m/hr for 2 4 hr. persistent maximum flow
Design of UASB for Sewage
Reactor height
Depends on
Type of the sludge present in the reactor
Organic loading rates applied
Volumetric hydraulic loading rates applied
Includes height of the sludge layer and of the sedimentation
Sludge layer height is 2-5 m for COD <3000 and 5-7 m for COD
>3000 mg/L and settling zone height is 1.2 m
For the reactors treating domestic sewage sludge layer height is
2.5 to 3.5 m and settler is 1.5 to 2.0 m
Up-flow velocity, reactor height and HRT are closely related
Height is 3-6m for up-flow velocities <1.0 m/hr & HRTs 6-10 hrs
Reactor volume: HRT * Flow rate
HRT is >4 hours (or hydraulic loading rate is <6 m
3
/m
3
.day)

Influent Distribution System
Feed water distribution should accomplish
Optimal contact between the sludge and the sewage
Avoid hydraulic short circuits and formation of dead zones
Prevent channelling (high gas production rates minimizes)
Even distribution of the influent is more important in the lower
part of the reactor at lower temp. for low strength waste
water low biogas production do not allow proper mixing
Short circuiting can also be caused by
Short heights of the sludge bed
Fewer number of influent distributors
Concentrated sludge with high settling velocity
Distribution system includes division boxes, piping and fittings,
distribution boxes, and distribution tubes
Distribution boxes are installed over the reactor and distribution
tubes are issued from it
A blocked tube can be easily detected

Influent Distribution System
Distribution tubes
Sewage velocity should be <0.2 m/sec. to avoid bubble dragging
Maintaining anaerobic conditions becomes difficult
Air bubbles can result in potentially explosive air-biogas mixtures in
the 3-phase separator
Diameter of the tube should be 75-100mm to avoid frequent
blocking (effluent screening can help)
Lower ends of the tubes should be installed at predetermined fixed
points
Lower ends of the tubes should have nozzles to increase the tip
velocity to >0.4 m/sec. to allow good mixing and greater contact
with the sludge
Tubes can have 40-50 mm diameter nozzle at the tip or, alternatively,
the tubes can have side apertures (windows) of 25x40 mm size
The tubes should allow easy cleaning
Influent Distribution System
Multiple cone bottom of the reactor can be helpful
Number of distribution tubes to be used depends on the basis of
Area of influence of each of the tubes
Total area of the reactor
Area of influence usually ranges between 1 and 4 m
2
-

For reactors treating domestic sewage it is 1.5 to 3 m
2
(2-3 m
2
is
recommended when COD is 400 to 600 mg/L)
Area of influence is a function of the type of sludge and the
organic loading rates applied
More for flocculating sludge than for granular sludge
Increases with increasing organic loading
Three Phase Separator
Liquid entering the settling zone should be free from biogas
bubbles
Deflectors overlapping with gas collection hoods ensure this
Within hoods enough gas-liquid interface is needed to allow
release of gas bubbles breaking the scum layer
Possible foaming should be taken care of within hoods
Settling zone should have sloping bottom to allow sliding of
settled sludge into the reactor
Depth of settling zone and upflow velocity in the settling zone
should ensure efficient clarification of the effluent
Aparture between hoods should be big enough to allow settled
sludge return into the reactor zone
For collecting the clarified effluent collection troughs with
enough weir length are needed
Scum baffles should be provided in front of the overflow weirs
Three-phase Separator
Low upflow velocities, absence of gas bubbles, sufficient depth
of sedimentation compartment are important
Depth of sedimentation zone should be 1.5 to 2 m
Slopes of sedimentation surfaces should be 45-60
HRT should be 1.5-2.0 hr. for average flow, >1.0 for 2-4 hour
persistent maximum flow and >0.6 hr for peak flows
Aperture area between gas collection hoods should be 15-20% and
gas dome edge overlapping should be 200-300 mm
Hydraulic surface loading rates should be
0.-0.8 m/hr for average flow
<1.2m/hr for 2-4 hour persistent maximum flow
<1.6 m/hr for temporary peak flow
Velocities in apertures are
<2.0-2.3 m/hr for average flow
<4.0-4.2 m/hr for 2-4 hr persistent max. flow
<5.5-6.0 for temporary peak flows
Three Phase Separator
Effluent collection
Plates with V-notch weirs and submerged perforated tubes
are used for the effluent collection
Scum baffle submerged 20 cm can be part of the launder with
V-notches
Submerged perforated tubes
Eliminates the risk of turbulence and release of gases and bad
odors and do not need scum baffles
Solids can accumulate in holes and inside the perforated tubes
For self-cleaning 1% slope is recommended
Three Phase Separator
Gas system
Includes provisions for biogas collection, conveyance, storage,
metering and disposal (either used or burnt)
Collection includes a sealed compartment with hydraulic seal and
biogas purge
Gas production rate and gas composition (CO
2
and H
2
S) may need
monitoring
Metering of the gas is essential for evaluating process efficiency
If biogas is to be flared then gas reservoir can be replaced by a
security valve (flame trap!) and gas burner
For avoiding drag of condensed liquids flow velocity in the piping is
maintained <3.5 m/sec.
Liquid gas interface is maintained in the gas collection hoods for
facilitating easy release of gas bubbles
Gas collection hood caps may have antifoam nozzles
Sludge Sampling and Discharge System
Sampling system includes a series of valves installed along the
height of the reactor compartment
Helps to determine solids profile of the reactor and facilitates
establishment of sludge discharge strategies
Helps in evaluating specific methanogenic activity and sludge
characteristics and knowing the ideal sludge discharge points
Sludge sampling points can be 5 or 6, spaced at 50 cm distance - 1.5
to 2 inch dia. piping with ball valves can be used as sampling ports
Monitoring and control of temperature and pH at different heights
may be needed
VFA and alkalinity measurement may also be needed for the
process control
Sludge discharge system (meant for the removal of inert
material and excess sludge accumulating at the bottom)
At least two sludge discharge points, one closer to the reactor
bottom and the other at 1-1.5 m height, to remove sludge from the
sludge bed zone and the blanket zone respectively - a third drain
can also be provided 0.5 m below the settling zone
Sludge discharge piping can be of >100 mm diameter

Sludge Discharge System
Determined by incoming TSS, TSS lost in effluent, TSS
hydrolyzed, sludge synthesized and TSS withdrawn as sludge
Y (yield coefficient) is taken as 0.1 to 0.14 of COD removed
Minimum SRT required is 3xTd
T
d
is doubling time for methanogenic biomass
SRT required depends on temperature
It is 140 days for 15C, 100 days for 20C, 60 days for 25C, 30
days for 30C, 20 days for 35C and 15 days for 40C
Sludge discharged in one batch should not be beyond 20-25%
of the total sludge present in the reactor
Sludge is sufficiently stabilized, has good dewaterability , its
density is 1020-1040 kg/m
3
and consistency is 3-5%
Can be sent directly to the dewatering units (sludge drying
beds?)
Materials of Construction
Risk of corrosion is high
Above liquid level by H
2
S (oxidized to SO
4
-
& cause corrosion)
Below water level CO
2
dissolves concrete at lower pH
Concrete and steel with an internal coating in an epoxy base, or
plastic fortified plywood can be used
Measures to minimize corrosion concrete structures
Selection of appropriate cement
Low water cement ratio
Rigorous vibration of the concrete
Adequate curing
Use of special additives
Acid resistant coatings/linings
Painting with chlorinated rubber or bituminous epoxy
PVC, fiber glass and stainless steel for the solids and gas
separator (most exposed to corrosion)
Treatment Efficiencies
Can remove COD by 70-80%, TSS by 70-80%, pathogens by 70-
90% and helminth eggs with 100% efficiency in case of
domestic sewage
Not effective in nutrient removal
Treatment efficiencies are very low at <10-15C hydrolysis
of particulate matter limits the process
At 13-17C for 14-17 hour HRT COD removal is 55-70%
For 23-25C at 4-6 hours HRT the removal is 80%
Empirical formulae for COD and BOD removal efficiencies
Efficiencies are estimated by means of empirical relations
The above relations are applicable to domestic sewage for 20-27C
Efficiencies are substantially affected by HRT
The efficiencies are 40 to 70% for COD and 45 to 90% for BOD
( )
35 . 0
68 . 0 1 100

= t
COD
E ( )
5 . 0
70 . 0 1 100

= t
BOD
E
Treatment Efficiencies
TSS in the treated effluent is 40 and 140 mg/L and depends on
Concentration and settling characteristics of the sludge
Sludge wastage frequency and height of sludge bed and blanket
Efficiency of the gas, solids and liquid separator
Presence or absence of scum baffles
Loading rates and HRTs in the reactor and sedimentation
compartments
TSS in the treated effluent and HRT are related and often
shown by
TSS is total suspended solids in mg/L
t is HRT in hours in the sedimentation compartment ?
24 . 0
102

= t TSS
Operation and control
Sensitive to the composition (concentration of various ions and
presence of toxicants like phenols) and strength of
wastewater , and to the temperature, pH, etc.
Temperature effect is insignificant on hydrolysis and acidogenesis
Temperature >5C
Digestion rates are very low at <15C
Optimal pH for methanogens is 6.8-7.2, but acid forming bacteria
favour acidic pH
Biomass washout can be a problem
COD:N:P ratio in the feed wastewater should be 350:5:1 (C:N:P
ratio of 200:5:1)
Nutrient addition as NH4H2PO4 or (NH4)2CO3
Sulfur, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, nickel, cobalt, zinc,
manganese and copper may also be required
Methanogens apparently have higher iron, nickel and cobalt
concentrations

Operation and control
Buffering capacity of the wastewater may be increased to
provide the alkalinity of 1000-5000 mg/L
Sodium bicarbonate can supplement the alkalinity
TSS in feed should be <500 mg/L
50% of the COD in domestic sewage is contributed by TSS
Insoluble matter can occupy volume, TSS can form scum layer,
and fats and lipids can cause foaming
Startup
Startup time is 2-3 weeks for >20C, otherwise 3-4 months
Hydraulic loading during startup is <50%
Startup needs sufficient amount of granular sludge
During start-up, biological loading rate should be in the range of
0.05 to 0.15 kg COD per kg VSS.day
Excessive loading can affect process stability (pH and VFA)
Maximum limit for biological loading rates depend on the
methanogenic activity of the sludge
for domestic sewage 0.3 to 0.4 kg COD/kg VSS.day is the limit


UASB ponds and Baffled
Anaerobic Reactors
UASB Ponds
These are modified and/or simplified UASB reactors
The complicated and costly 3-phase separator is replaced (no
gas collection tunnels)
Floating plastic collapsible membrane or fixed concrete slab is
used for the gas collection
Deflectors are used underneath the treated effluent collection
trough to separate out the gas bubbles
The plastic membrane can have the following three layers
Top high tensile UV-resistant geomembrane
Middle layer 12.5 mm thick polyfoam insulation and flotation
Base layer of high density polyethylene welded to the base
UASB Ponds
Other features and guidelines for the UASB ponds
Clarification of the effluent is compromised with and
compensated by relatively lower upflow velocities
Hydraulic short-circuiting is minimized through decreasing
spacing between distribution tubes towards the outer side
For better performance the weir loading is reduced to half to
that for a secondary clarifier
Aperture is maintained 15% and on this basis width of the UASB
pond cell is decided
flow velocity through the aperture is maintained <<0.2 m/sec.
The pond is left open over the deflector and used for having
Overflow weirs and effluent collection trough
Influent distribution boxes
At regular intervals vertical sludge pipes are provided in the
deflector to facilitate sludge pump out.
Sewage inlet
Distribution box
Effluent collection trough
Distribution pipe
Deflector
Treated effluent
outlet
Biogas outlet
UASB Pond Top View
Sludge dredging drain
UASB Pond (Section) Elevation
Sewage inlet
Biogas outlet Biogas outlet
Distribution pipes
Diflector pillar
Sludge bed Sludge bed
Sludge blanket Sludge blanket
Diflector
Effluent collection trough
Sludge dredging pipe
Distribution box
Biogas Biogas
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
Anaerobic baffled reactor
Baffles are used to direct wastewater flow in up-flow mode
through a series of anaerobic sludge blanket reactors
Modifications to the basic process can include
use of settler to capture and return solids
use of packing in the upper portion to capture solids
Long SRTs possible with low HRTs
System is stable to shock loads
Anaerobic migrating blanket reactor
Similar to anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) but have an added
feature of mechanical mixing
Influent feed point is changed periodically to the effluent side
Organic loading rate 1 to 3 kg/m
3
.day and HRT 4-12 hours
COD removal efficiency increases with temperature (60% at 15C
and 80-95% at 20C at lower organic loading)


Anaerobic baffled reactor
Anaerobic migrating blanket reactor
Influent
Influent
reversed flow
Effluent
reversed flow
Effluent
Influent
Effluent
Biogas
Biogas
Effluent zone
Biogas zone
Wastewater inlet
Capped vertical
section of inlet
Vertical
section of inlet
Effluent level
Raised discharge end
of the outlet
Hopper bottom
Extraction end
of the outlet
Outlet
Inlet to stage-2
Outlet
2-stage Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
Canopy
150
500
800
350
750
200
450
100
125
300
Overflow weir
Underflow baffle
Inlet pipe
Central upflow pipe
Partitioning wall of outlet box
Outflowing stream pipe
Flow distribution box