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Data Models

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, and Management, Seventh Edition, Rob and Coronel 1

Lesson Objectives
Why data models are important About the basic data-modeling building blocks What business rules are and how they influence database design How the major data models evolved

How data models can be classified by level of abstraction

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

The Importance of Data Models

Data models
Relatively simple representations, usually graphical, of complex real-world data structures Facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the end user

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

The Importance of Data Models (continued)

End-users have different views and needs for data
Data model organizes data for various users

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Data Model Basic Building Blocks

Entity - anything about which data are to be collected and stored Attribute - a characteristic of an entity Relationship - describes an association among entities
One-to-many (1:M) relationship Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship One-to-one (1:1) relationship

Constraint - a restriction placed on the data

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Business Rules
How do modelers go about modeling data? By understanding Business Rules!

Brief, precise, and unambiguous descriptions of a policies, procedures, or principles within a specific organization
E.g. a student may take up to 21 credits at a time E.g. each computer account may only be used by one student

Any organization that stores and uses data to generate information has business rules (whether they know it or not) Business rules are a description of the organizations operations

They help to create and enforce actions within that organizations environment
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Business Rules (continued)

Must be rendered in writing
Must be kept up to date Sometimes are external to the organization Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated

Describe characteristics of the data as viewed by the company

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Business Rules and Data Modeling

May identify entities and/or types of relationships

E.g. E.g. each computer account may only be used by one student (the account owner)
identifies the STUDENT and ACCOUNT entities helps to identify that the relationship is 1:1 (to fully get that we need another rule how many accounts may a student have?)

Some business rules dont impact data modeling (but may impact application development)
E.g. students cannot sign up for more than one section of the same course (in same semester (may repeat))
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Discovering Business Rules

Sources of Business Rules:

Company managers
Policy makers Department managers Written documentation Procedures Standards Operations manuals Direct interviews with end users

Frequently must resolve conflicts between different sources

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Translating Business Rules into Data Model Components

Standardize companys view of data
Constitute a communications tool between users and designers Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of data Allow designer to understand business processes Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship participation rules and constraints Promote creation of an accurate data model
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Discovering Business Rules (continued)

Generally, nouns translate into entities
Verbs translate into relationships among entities

Relationships are bi-directional

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Evolution of Data Models (continued)

Hierarchical
Network Relational Entity relationship Object oriented (OO)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Hierarchical Model

Developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects
Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down tree

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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A Hierarchical Structure
Bank Hierachical Database

Branch

Customer

Checks

Deposits

Withdrawals
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Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

The Hierarchical Model (continued)

The hierarchical structure contains levels, or segments
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between a parent and its children segments
Each parent can have many children each child has only one parent

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)

Advantages
Many of the hierarchical data models features formed the foundation for current data models Its database application advantages are replicated, albeit in a different form, in current database environments Generated a large installed (mainframe) base, created a pool of programmers who developed numerous tried-and-true business applications
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)

Disadvantages
Complex to implement Difficult to manage Lacks structural independence Implementation limitations Lack of standards No ad hoc query capability

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Network Model

Created to
Represent complex data relationships more effectively Improve database performance Impose a database standard

Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) Database Task Group (DBTG)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Network Model (continued)

Schema
Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the database administrator

Subschema
Defines database portion seen by the application programs that actually produce the desired information from data contained within the database

Data Management Language (DML)

Defines the environment in which data can be managed
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Network Model (continued)

Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)
Enables database administrator to define schema components

Subschema DDL
Allows application programs to define database components that will be used

DML
Works with the data in the database
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Network Model (continued)

Resembles hierarchical model
Collection of records in 1:M relationships Set
Relationship Composed of at least two record types
Owner Equivalent to the hierarchical models parent Member Equivalent to the hierarchical models child A set represents a 1:M relationship between the owner and the member

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Network Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Database Models
Network Database Model
Advantages
Conceptual simplicity Handles more relationship types Data access flexibility Promotes database integrity

Data independence
Conformance to standards
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Network Model (continued)

Disadvantages
Too cumbersome The lack of ad hoc query capability put heavy pressure on programmers Any structural change in the database could produce havoc in all application programs that drew data from the database Many database old-timers can recall the interminable information delays
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Relational Model

Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970 Conceptually simple Computers lacked power to implement the relational model

Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational database software

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Relational Model (continued)

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
Performs same basic functions provided by hierarchical and network DBMS systems, in addition to a host of other functions Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its ability to hide the complexities of the relational model from the user
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Relational Model (continued)

Table (relations)
Matrix consisting of a series of row/column intersections Related to each other through sharing a common entity characteristic

Relational diagram
Representation of relational databases entities, attributes within those entities, and relationships between those entities
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Relational Model (continued)

Relational Table
Stores a collection of related entities
Resembles a file

Relational table is purely logical structure

How data are physically stored in the database is of no concern to the user or the designer This property became the source of a real database revolution
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Relational Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Relational Model (continued)

Rise to dominance due in part to its powerful and flexible query language
Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user to specify what must be done without specifying how it must be done SQL-based relational database application involves:
User interface A set of tables stored in the database SQL engine
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Database Models
Relational Database Model
Advantages
Structural independence Improved conceptual simplicity Easier database design, implementation, management, and use Ad hoc query capability (SQL) Powerful database management system
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Database Models
Relational Database Model
Disadvantages
Substantial hardware and system software overhead Possibility of poor design and implementation Potential islands of information problems
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Entity Relationship Model

Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data modeling
Introduced by Chen in 1976

Graphical representation of entities and their relationships in a database structure

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

Entity relationship diagram (ERD) Uses graphic representations to model database components Entity is mapped to a relational table

Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table

Entity set is collection of like entities Connectivity labels types of relationships Diamond connected to related entities through a relationship line
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Object Oriented Model

Modeled both data and their relationships in a single structure known as an object
Object-oriented data model (OODM) is the basis for the object-oriented database management system (OODBMS) OODM is said to be a semantic data model

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

Object described by its factual content
Like relational models entity

Includes information about relationships between facts within object, and relationships with other objects
Unlike relational models entity

Subsequent OODM development allowed an object to also contain all operations

Object becomes basic building block for autonomous structures

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
Attributes describe the properties of an object Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes Classes are organized in a class hierarchy Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class hierarchy to inherit the attributes and methods of classes above it
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Other Models
Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)
Semantic data model developed in response to increasing complexity of applications DBMS based on the ERDM often described as an object/relational database management system (O/RDBMS) Primarily geared to business applications

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Database Models and the Internet

Internet drastically changed role and scope of database market
OODM and ERDM-O/RDM have taken a backseat to development of databases that interface with Internet Dominance of Web has resulted in growing need to manage unstructured information

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Data Models: A Summary

Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of previous models
Common characteristics:
Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic completeness of the database Represent the real world as closely as possible Representation of real-world transformations (behavior) must comply with consistency and integrity characteristics of any data model

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Data Models: A Summary (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Degrees of Data Abstraction

Way of classifying data models
Many processes begin at high level of abstraction and proceed to an everincreasing level of detail Designing a usable database follows the same basic process

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC)
Defined a framework for data modeling based on degrees of data abstraction(1970s):
External Conceptual Internal

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The External Model

End users view of the data environment
Requires that the modeler subdivide set of requirements and constraints into functional modules that can be examined within the framework of their external models

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The External Model (continued)

Advantages:
Easy to identify specific data required to support each business units operations Facilitates designers job by providing feedback about the models adequacy Creation of external models helps to ensure security constraints in the database design Simplifies application program development

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The External Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Conceptual Model

Represents global view of the entire database
Representation of data as viewed by the entire organization

Basis for identification and high-level description of main data objects, avoiding details
Most widely used conceptual model is the entity relationship (ER) model
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Conceptual Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Conceptual Model (continued)

Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data environment
Independent of both software and hardware
Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of the model Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no effect on the database design at the conceptual level
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Internal Model

Representation of the database as seen by the DBMS
Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS

Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an internal model

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Internal Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Physical Model

Operates at lowest level of abstraction, describing the way data are saved on storage media such as disks or tapes
Software and hardware dependent Requires that database designers have a detailed knowledge of the hardware and software used to implement database design

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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The Physical Model (continued)

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Summary
A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a complex real-world data environment
Basic data modeling components are:
Entities Attributes Relationships Constraints
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Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

Summary (continued)
Hierarchical model
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between a parent and its children segments

Network data model

Uses sets to represent 1:M relationships between record types

Relational model
Current database implementation standard ER model is a popular graphical tool for data modeling that complements the relational model
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel

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Summary (continued)
Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented data model
The relational model has adopted many objectoriented extensions to become the extended relational data model (ERDM) Data modeling requirements are a function of different data views (global vs. local) and level of data abstraction

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