ORTHOPHOTOS

1m Resolution BC Government Ortho

50cm Resolution McElhanney Ortho

 What is an Orthophoto?

• An orthophoto is a geometrically corrected aerial

photograph.

• It is generated when variations in scale and displacements,

caused by tilt of the aircraft and terrain relief, are removed
from the aerial photograph by a process called orthophoto
rectification.

• Orthophotos are orthographic photographs; in essence they

are “photo-maps”.
• An orthophoto offers the detail and richness of an aerial
photograph (not by lines and symbols) combined with the
accuracy and scale of a map. Hence, orthophotos give the
resource analyst the “best of both worlds”.
 Applications of Orthophoto

• An orthophoto allows for the direct measurement of

distances, areas, and positions (if printed at scale or used in a
Geographic Information System). An orthophoto may serve as a
base layer onto which other map information may be placed.
• Since orthophotos are georeferenced, they can include
geographic information or bring out topography, territory
boundaries, etc.
Orthophotography can be used in a number of fields, including:
•The environment;
•Agriculture;
•Transportation;
•Forestry;
•Civil engineering;
•Urban planning.
 Generating Orthophoto

Are generated from overlapping

conventional photos in a process called
differential rectification.
Orthophotos are prepared in instruments
called orthophotoscopes.

Orthorectification - process used to

remove the sources of distortion to
equilibrate photo units with real life
distances.
Orthorectification removes horizontal
distortion, but vertical relief An orthophotoscope,
displacement is still maintained. For orthophotographic table
example, the sides of a building would containing film holder.
still contain distortion.
 Methods

There are two methods by which rectification of an aerial photograph

can occur.
1. Ground Control Points (GCP) are determined either
conventional ground surveys, from published maps, by Global
Positioning System (GPS) surveys, or by aerotriangulation.
2. The second method of orthorectification is to use DEMs. These
elevations are collected from stereoscopic models by
photogrammetric methods to form a digital elevation model
(DEM).
 Methods

Depending on the needs of the aerial imagery in the GIS

system, there are advantages and disadvantages to using
either method.

GCP orthorectification is a faster process and can be

accomplished using existing paper maps to establish the
GCPs.

Using DEMs for orthorectification is a more accurate process

by which to geocode digital imagery but require an existing
DEM or DTM for processing.
Orthophotos are prepared in
instruments called
orthophotoscopes.
All points of the stereomodel
are photographed onto an
orthophoto negative, which
is then used to print the
orthophotograph.

Operating principle of direct optical

projection orthophotoscope.
They can be used as base
map for contour line
overlays called topographic
orthophotomap.
Topographic orthophotomap.
Flight Planning
 Flight Planning……..
Problems associated?
• Flight planning: Refers to the work done prior to the
acquisition and development of the photography.

• Adverse conditions can degrade the quality.

• A great deal of time, effort, and expense go into the

planning and execution of a photographic mission.

• Flight Inconsistencies: Since the aircraft is not an

absolutely stable platform, all photographs are not truly
vertical. Several inconsistencies can be encountered.
Flight Planning………Parameters ?

1. REQUIREMENTS OF A FLIGHT PLAN

Specifications
1. camera and film requirements
2. scale, flying height, endlap, sidelap
3. tilt and crab tolerances, etc.
Flight Planning………Parameters ?

2.PURPOSE OF PHOTOGRAPHY
compilation of topographic maps in a
stereoscopic plotting instrument

Requirements:
1. Good Metric Quality Photos: Calibrated
Cameras And Films (High-resolution)
2. Favorable B/H Ratio
 Flight Planning………Parameters ?

3. PHOTOGRAPHIC SCALE
Scale of Final Map produced
Contour interval
Capabilities of the stereo-plotting instruments
Enlargement ratio (usually 5x)
Variation of scale due to ground elevation
 Flight Planning………Parameters ?

4. FLYING HEIGHT
(a) Given: focal length of a camera lens a compilation scale
of the map
Necessary flying height can be calculated.
(b) Vertical accuracy in topographic mapping
Contour Interval
_flying height__
C-Factor = contour interval
Flying Height = Contour Interval x C-factor
C-Factor (of instruments): 750-2500
 Flight Planning………Parameters ?

5. COVERAGE: ENDLAP AND SIDELAP

6. COMPUTATION OF FLIGHT PLAN:

7. WEATHER CONDITIONS
 Flight Planning ………
considerations
Geometric aspect of the task of flight
 Setting the flight plan. planning.
• Boundaries.  Parameters needed:
• Spatial accuracy. • The focal length of the camera to be
• Anticipated map scale. used.
• The camera format size.
• After knowing above • The photo scale desired.
information, a flight plan will be • The size of area to be photographed.
developed that allows the
• The average elevation of the area to
aircraft to fully cover the area.
be photographed.
• The overlap desired.
• The side lap desired; and
• The ground speed of the aircraft
required.
 Flight Planning……… basic
considerations

• Based on the parameters discussed, the mission planner prepares

computations and a flight map that indicates to the flight crew.
• The flying height above the datum from which the photos are to be taken;
• The location, direction, and number of flight lines to be made over the
area to be photographed.
• The time interval between exposures.
• The no. of exposures on each flight line; and

• 8
 Flight Planning……… basic
considerations
• The total no. of exposures necessary for the mission.
• Flight plans are normally portrayed on a map for the
flight crew.
• Other things includes: mission timing,
• ground control requirements,
• camera calibration characteristics,
• film and filter type,
• exposure conditions,
• scale tolerance, and product delivery schedules.
forwardlap side lap Stereomodel
 Flight Planning….. Latest
technological advances..

F L T P L A N an arc view application.

FLTPLAN, created by U.S.D.A. Forest Service
•
efficiently plan for aerial photography missions
•
effective use of scanned photography
•
Designed to automate the process of planning, analysis, and presentation using aerial photography.
•
Multiple capabilities including mission planning, geo-indexing, world file creation, photo scale calculation, mission archiving
•
FLTPLAN, is an ArcView 3.2 application designed for all levels of ArcView user ability.
•
Automated Flight Planning - GIS
Style
• Two types of flights can be
planned.

• One to create a single flight path

and

• another to create parallel flight

paths.

References
Remote sensing and image interpretation by thomas lillesand & ralph wkeifer.
F L T P L A N Flight Mission Planning, Mission Archiving, and Scanned Aerial Photography Geo-
indexing An ArcView Application.htm
Flight Operation Center
• combines accurate and realistic flight
planning with multiple links to popular
flight simulation programs, such as
• Microsoft Flight Simulator 98 and 2000,
• Nomissoft Airline Simulator 2,
• Aerowinx Precision Simulator 744 1.3.

References
Remote sensing and image interpretation by thomas lillesand & ralph wkeifer.
F L T P L A N Flight Mission Planning, Mission Archiving, and Scanned Aerial Photography Geo-indexing An
ArcView Application.htm
advantages of aerial
photography
 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

 First form of remote sensing imagery- most widely used

images.
 Traditionally acquired at an altitude of 6000m or less
resulting in scales of 1:40,000 or larger.
 In 1970’s improvements in cameras and films-
photographs at higher altitude.
 In addition to the spectral range as is covered by any
film, they also cover full range of reflected IR energy of
wavelengths up to 3µm.
 Delivers high spatial resolution and very high spatial
data.
 CHARACTERISTICS

Spatial resolution or resolving power

 Atmospheric scattering.
 Vibration and motion of aircrafts.
 Resolving power of lenses.
 Resolving power of films.

Ground resolution of photographs

 It expresses the ability to resolve ground features on
aerial photographs.
 CHARACTERISTICS

Spatial resolution details:

 Atmospheric scattering- It results from multiple
interactions between light rays and gases and particles
of the atmosphere.
 Vibration and motion of aircrafts- They are minimized by
vibration free camera mounts and motion compensated
devices.
 Resolving power of lenses- The maximum number of
resolvable line pairs/ mm.
 Resolving power of films- It depends on granularity- in
case of high granularity there exists low resolving power.
 TYPES OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS
• Photo-mosaics.
 Low sun angle photographs.
 Black and white photographs.
 Panchromatic black and white photographs.
 IR black and white photographs.
 UV photographs
 Color photographs
 IR color photographs
 High altitude aerial photographs (NASA high altitude
photogrpahs)
 Multi spectral photographs
 CATEGORIES OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS

CATEGORY SCALE
Aerial photography Up to 1:40,000

National high altitude 1:80,000-black and white

photography 1:58,000- color IR

NASA aircraft photography 1:1,120,000- black and

white
Normal color and IR color
USES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

 Topographic maps
 Soil conservation studies
 Agriculture crop inventories
 Urban planning
 Geological and other features of the earth
 Vegetation cover, roads, housing etc
 ADVANTAGES OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS

 It can be scanned into GIS systems for

valuable information source.
 Available in a variety of scales.
 Relatively cheap in comparison with other
techniques for imaging.
 Historical data sets available.
 ADVANTAGES OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS

 The film provides excellent spatial

resolution and has high information
content.
 Different films provide a sensitivity range
from the UV spectral region through the
visible and into the reflected IR region.
 Stereo photographs are valuable aids for
many types of interpretation.
 DISADVANTAGES OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS

 Daylight and good weather are necessary

to acquire them.
 In the shorter wavelength regions,
atmospheric scattering reduces their
contrast ratio and resolving power.