Chapter 3

Kinetics of a Particle

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 ■ Kinetics is based on kinematics and
 
Newton's second law : F = m a A
■ A reference system in which Newton's
constant and
second law is valid is called an inertial
linear velocity system
aA 
A vB ■ ∴ All systems moving with constant
and linear velocities are inertial
B systems.

   
O F = m a A / B = m( a A − a B )
 
= m aA ( where aB = 0 )

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 ■ When
  a particle is subjected to forces :

F2 F1 , F2 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅

FR   
 FR = ∑ Fi = m a Equation of motion
F1 i
■ We can separate : FRx = ma x
FRy = ma y
FRz = ma z
■ * Free body diagram :

F1

N

mg Fµ
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Example ■ R=k v
dv
∴ mg − kv = mv = m
o dt
mdv
y ∴ ∫ dt = ∫
mg − kv
m
t = − n (mg − kv) + C
k
R ■ when t = 0, v = 0
m
∴ C = n (mg )
k
m  mg − kv 
∴ t = − n  
k  mg 
mg
− kt / m mg − kv
4
e =
mg Jump to first page
v mg
∴ v= (1 − e − kt / m ) .....( 1 )
mg/k k
mg
t→∞ v = vT = #
k
t dy mg
(b) v= = (1 − e − kt / m )
dt k
h t mg
∴ ∫ dy = ∫ (1 − e − kt / m
) dt
0 0 k

mg m2g
∴h = t − 2 (1 − e− kt / m) # ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2)
k k

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 Work
■ The work done by a force on a particle in a
displacement of
2 
dr
dU-scalar 
 Fn 
F dU = F ; ⋅ dr = Fds cos α
■

dr if 
α
■

Ft α
 ds = d
 r 
■ then F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
work done
∴ The total :  
dr F=dsdx i (F+cos
dyαj =+Fdz
■

1 Now dU = )
k
■
t
 t

■ ⋅ drds = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
F= ma t
 
U =∫ F ⋅ dr

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 Kinetic energy K.E.
Total work done by external force
 dv
2  2 2 2 t
W = ∫ 1 F ⋅ dr = ∫ 1 Fdr = ∫ 1 ma dr = ∫ 1 m dr
1− 2 t t t dt t
 2 dv 2 dv 2
 = ∫1 m dr = ∫ 1 m vdt = ∫ 1 mvdv
F
dr dt t dt
1 2 1 2
= mv2 − mv1 = T2 − T1 = ∆T
2 2

v Total work done by external = change in K.E.

  
F dU F ⋅ dr  
Power P= = =F ⋅ v
dt dt
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Conservative force and potential energy
■ A conservative force is a force having
the characteristic that the work done by
the force on the particle depends on the
2 net change in position and not on the
Path a
actual path followed by the particle.
Path b

1
■ e.g.
◆ gravitational force
◆ elastic force
◆ electrostatic force

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 • Work done to move P from 1 to 2 is
P2
Path independent of path
a 2   2  
Path ∫ 1( path a) F ⋅ dr = ∫ 1( path b) F ⋅ dr = V − Vref
b 
r
1 where
 V is the potential depending on position
Fis a conservative force

•The potential is written as

 S  
V (r ) = Vref − ∫ S F ⋅ dr
o

at S0, V = Vref

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 
when d r is very small,
S2  S1  
2 dV =−∫S F ⋅ dr − (− ∫ S F ⋅ dr )
 o
 
o

1
dr S
= − ∫ S2
F ⋅ dr
 1

= − F ⋅ dr
 
= −F x − F y − F z = − F • dr
x y z


Since V is a function of r
∂V ∂V ∂V
dV = dx + dy + dz (exact differential)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂V ∂V ∂V
Fx = − ; Fy = − ; Fz = −
∂x ∂y ∂z

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 ■ Another representation:
   
− F = − i Fx − j Fy − k Fz
∂V ∂V  ∂V
=i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

= i
∂ ∂ ∂ 
+j +k V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂  ∂
Define gradient ; del : ∇ = i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z

∴ F = − ∇V

Note : For a closed path

2   1  
∫ 1( path a) F ⋅ dr + ∫ 2( path b) F ⋅ dr = 0
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Example m
2    
F = −mgi V2 = Vref − ∫ F ⋅ dr
 
dr = +dxi
g h
= Vref − (−mgh)
∴ V2 − Vref = mgh
1, ref

Example V = xy2z3
 ∂V   ∂V   ∂V 
dV =   dx +   dy +   dz
 ∂x  y , z  ∂y  x, z  ∂z  x , y
= ( y 2 z 3 ) dx + [ x(2 y ) z 3 ] dy + [ xy 2 (3z 2 )] dz
dV = y 2 z 3 dx + [ x(2 y ) z 3 ] dy + [ xy 2 (3z 2 )] dz
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Example ■ Gravitational potential energy :
■ Gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11 N
m2/kg2
   
F = − G mM e ; d r = − dr e
M r2 r r
r  
V (r ) = V∞ − ∫ ∞r [− G mM
m 
e ] (− dr e )
r 2
[Set V∞ = 0 ]
R r
= GmM / r ∞
= − G mM
r
On the surface of the earth, F = mg,
r = radius of the earth R
mM
mg = G 2
R
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Example : Spring
■ Work done :

   
F = − kx i , dx = dx i
  e
X ∴Ve = − ∫ F ⋅ dx = ∫ kxdx
0
X=0 X
1 2
= kx
2
] e
0
1 2
= ke
2

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Work-energy equation :
 
∆K.E. = ∫ ∑ F ⋅ dr
(   
= ∫ ∑ F + ∑ F (0) ⋅ dr
(C )
)
 (C )
■ ∑ F - all conservative forces
 (0)
■ ∑F - non-conservative forces
(frictional
force), depend on paths

∫ ∑F ⋅ dr = − ∆V
(C )

■ If we specify
( 0 ) 
■
∫ ∑ F ⋅ dr = W , dissipative work
∴ ∆K.E. = − ∆V + W

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 ■
∴ ∆T + ∆(workdone)
V =W
■ work-energy eq. increase decrease

■
If W = 0
■ then ∆T + ∆V = 0
■ The conservation of mechanical energy.

∴ ( T2 − T1 ) + (V2 − V1 ) = 0
P.E. (Max)
∴ T2 + V2 = T1 + V1

K.E. (Max)
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Examples
■ Find v. Given r = 0.5m, ρ -mass per unit length

smooth
G G
y
r 0.5m
At rest 0.6m 0.6m
rope
Lost of P.E.=
πr
πr 
■

ρ (πr ) g  y + 0.6 +  2
 2  G
1 v
= [ ρ(πr + 0.6 ) ] v 2
2
17 =Gain in K .E.
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 y=? ■ ds = rdθ
■ dm = ρ ds
P.E of the small
■ P.E. = dm g (r sin θ )element
π
■ Total P.E. = ∫
0
g r sin θ r ρd θ

= r g ρ [ − cos θ ] = 2r ρ g = Mgy
2 π 2
0

ds M = πrρ Mass of the semi-circular

r rope
dθ
ref θ 2r
∴y =
π
18
∴ v = 4.92 m / s #
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 ■ Find :
■ (a) the velocity of m when the rod passes
the horizontal position (light rod).
■ (b) the max velocity of the particles.
■ (c) the max. value of θ .
θ
r θ r
2m■ Change P.E.=
■ Gain in K.E. =
m − 2mgr sin θ + mg (r − r cos θ )
1
The rod is released ( 2 m + m)v 2
2
at rest when θ = 0
1
∴ (3m)v 2 = mgr (2 sin θ + cosθ − 1)
2
2
∴ v / gr = (2 sin θ + cosθ − 1)
2

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 ■ (a) When the rod is horizontal, θ = 45o
∴ v45o = 0.865 gr #

■ (b) d 2
dθ
( v / gr ) = ( 2 cos θ − sin θ ) = 0
2
3
tan θ = 2 , ∴ θ = 63.4o
∴ 2
vmax / gr = 0.824
∴ vmax = 0.908 gr #

■ (c) max value of θ ⇔ v = 0

■ ∴ 2sinθ + cosθ - 1 = 0 ⇒ θ max
■ Since, sin θ = 1 − cos 2 θ
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 ∴ 2 1 − cos θ = 1 − cos θ
2

( )
4 1 − cos θ = 1 − 2 cosθ + cos θ
2 2

∴ 5 cos 2 θ − 2 cosθ − 3 = 0
∴ cosθ = 0.2 ± 0.8
= 1 or − 0.6
∴ θ = 0 or θ = 126.9o #

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Examp (a) ν =? when friction = 0
le
B

O ∆T + ∆V = 0

 mv B − mv A  + ( − mg ( R − R cos 40 ) ) = 0
R=140m 40o 1 2 1 2  o

(b)ν B=?2If frictional  µ = 0.1.

2 coefficient
∆ T∴ + v∆ V==28 W .9 m / s
B #
A h vB
vA
B
v A = 50km / hr v2
N − mg cos θ = m  ( 2)
Find vB R
µN − mg sin θ = mv  (1)

R θ  v2 
∴ v − µ   = µg cosθ − g sin θ
µN R
dv dθ ds dv  1 
N θ B  v = ⋅ ⋅ =  v
dθ ds dt dθ  R 
mg
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 v dv  v2 
∴ − µ  = µg cos θ − g sin θ
R dθ R
dw dv
■ Let w=v 2
; then = 2v
dθ dθ
dw
∴ − 2 µw = ( 2µg cosθ − 2 g sin θ ) R
dθ
■ The solution :
θ'
2µ θ' − 2µ θ
w(θ ' ) = e ∫
{C + e (2µgR cos θ − 2gR sin θ )dθ }
■ Formula :
θo ax[a sin px − p cos px]
e
∫ eax sin pxdx =
a2 + p 2
eax[a cos px + p sin px]
∫ eax cos pxdx =
a2 + p2
2µ θ' 2gR 2 2
∴ w(θ ' ) = Ce + [3µ sin θ '+(1 − 2µ ) cos θ ' ] = v
2
23 1 + 4µ
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  π 
Whenθ = 40 = 40
o
 rad ,
 180 
50 ×103
v= m / s = 13.9 m / s
3600
2 π
 50 
  = C e
0.2×40×
180
+
2 × 9.8 ×140
[0 .3 sin 40 o
+ 0.98 cos 40 o
]
 3.6  1 + 4( 0.1) 2

■ ∴ C = -2000 (m/s)2
■ when θ = 0o
w = vB2 = −2000 e 0.2×0 + 2641× (0.98)
∴ vB2 = 588.2
vB = 24.3 m / s #

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 Linear momentum and Impulse
Newton's 2nd law :   d 
F = mv = (mv )
■

dt
■ Let  ;  -linear momentum

G ≡ mv G
 Fi  d  
 F2 ∴F = G = G
FR m dt
Impulse ≡  
 ■


F1
v ∑ Fi = G
t2    
∫ t ∑ Fi dt = ∫ dG = G2 − G
1

Impulse = change in linear momentum

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In component form :
t2
∫
t1
∑ Fx dt = ∆Gx
t2 Impulse-
∫
t1
∑ Fy dt = ∆G y momentum
t2 equation
∫
t1
∑ Fz dt = ∆Gz

Problems on kinetics of a particle :

(4), (5), (10), (13), (15), (18), (20), (21),
(23), (24).

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 Conservation of
momentum 
t2
∫ ∑ F ⋅ dt = ∆G
t1

∴ If ∑ F = 0 orthe time t1 → t2 is extremely
small, then ∆G = 0
t2  
A B ∫
t1
∑ FA ⋅ dt = ∆G A
Fa FR t2  
∫
t1
∑ FB ⋅ dt = ∆GB

FA = Fa (action) FB = FR (reaction) = − FA
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   
[ ]

∑( FA ) + ∑( FB ) dt = ∆G A + ∆GB
t2
∴∫
t1

◆ If no other forces acting on A and B, then

 
0 = ∆G A + ∆GB
◆ Let G S = GA + GB ,
◆ then ∆ GS = 0 (Principle of
◆ conservation of linear
◆ momentum.)

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 
v1 
Initially :  
 m2 Gi = m1v1 + m2 v2
m1 v2
■ Collison no external force
'
m2 v1
Finally m1
'
v2  
 
∴ G f = m1v1, + m2 v2, = Gi
■
1 2 1 2
? 1
,2 1 ,2
Whether : m1v1 + m2 v2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
2 2 2 2
■ elastic collision K.E.(i) = K.E.(f)
■ inelastic
29 collision K.E.(i) > K.E.(f)
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 Impact :
■ (a) Direct central impact :
 
v1 v2
m1 m2 Before impact
' '
v1 v2
■ By conservation of linear momentum After impact
m1 m2
■ The coefficient of restitution e :

m1v1 + m2 (−v2 ) = m1 (−v1' ) + m2 (v2' )

relative velocity of separation v2' − (−v1' )

e≡ =
relative velocity of approach (−v2 ) − v1
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Impact :
■ 0≤ e≤ 1

■ e = 1 : perfectly elastic impact (no energy

■ loss)
■ e = 0 : perfectly plastic impact (Max.
■ energy loss)
■ e depends on the geometry and materials
of the impact bodies as well as the impact
velocities.
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(b) Oblique central impact
n
m1  '
v1 v1
m1
θ1 θ1'
θ2 t
θ 2'
 '
v2 m2 v2
m2
during
before After (impact)

✦ Assume no friction; only impact in n-direction is considered.

✦ (v1)n = -v1sin θ 1 , (v1)t = v1cos θ 1
✦ (v2)n = v2sin θ 2 , (v2)t = v2cos θ 2

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Oblique central impact
✦ By conservation of linear momentum

m1 (v1 ) n + m2 (v2 ) n = m1 (v1' ) n + m2 (v2' ) n

m1 (v1 )t = m1 (v )
'
1 t

m2 (v2 ) t = m2 (v2' )t
✦ Also (v ) − (v )
' '
2 n 1 n
en =
(v2 ) n − (v1 ) n
✦ Four equations, four unknow numbers
Hence v1’, v2’, θ 1’ and θ 2’ can be found.

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Angular Momentum :
■ take moment about O

 v ■ The angular momentum about O :
vθ ■ HO = r m vθ
β  = r m v sinβ
vr
■


r m
θ
o

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 ■ Also H O = mr 2θ ; vθ = rθ
dH O d
= (mr 2θ ) = mr (rθ + 2rθ )
dt dt
= m r aθ = rFθ = M O
(Torque, moment of force about O)

dH O 
 dG
∴MO = F=
dt dt
t2 t2  

∫
t1
M O dt = H O 2 − H O1 = ∆H O ∫t1
∑ Fdt = ∆G

Ho 
v    
H O = r × G = mr × v = mrv sin βHˆ O
β 
35 r
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    
Ho r = xi + yj + zk
    
v v = vx i + v y j + vz k
  
i j k
β 
 HO = m x y z
r
vx vy vz
 
[ 
= m ( yvz − zv y ) i + ( zv x − xvz ) j + ( xv y − yvx ) k ]

dH O   
∴ = r × F = M0
dt
t2   
36
∴ ∫ M 0 dt = H O 2 − H O1
t1
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Central force motion :

v m

F
r directrix
θ
mo
d
■ Due to central gravitational attraction :
 mm0 
F = −G 2 er
■ r :
By polar coordinates

37

( 2  )  
m a = m r − rθ er + m(rθ + 2rθ ) eθ
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■
∴−
Gmm0 .....(A)
r 2
= m r − rθ
  (
2
)
■ and ….(B)

(
0 = m rθ + 2rθ )
■ Thus =
1 d
r dt
( 2 
(angular )
mr θmomentum)
■ and HO is a constant.

■ Take H O = mr θ 2
(constant)

r θ = h
2

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■ The rate of area swept by radius vector :

■ A = 1 r θ = h = Constant
(Kepler's second law of 2
planetary motion.)
…...(C)
■
2
The solution to equation (A) :
2

■ C, δ are the integration constants. Choose r be a minimum on x-axis (θ = 0) then δ = 0, we get

■ ..…….(E)

1 Gm0
= C cos(θ + δ ) + 2 …….(D)
r h

1 Gm0
= C cos θ + 2
39
r h Jump to first page
■ A conic section is formed by the locus of a
point moving with the ratio e of its
distance from a point (focus) to a line
(directrix) being constant.

r
■ i.e. e=
d − r cosθ
■ Rearrange the above equation :
1 1 1
= cosθ + …..(F)
r d ed
1 h 2C
∴d = , e=
C Gm0
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 2a

a (1 + e) a (1 − e)
m
v r θ
Apogee
2b Perigee
mO
circle e = 0

ellipse e < 1
parabola e = 1
hyperbola e > 1

Three
41
cases : e<1, e=1, e>1.
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Case 1 : ellipse (e < 1)
ed
■ From (E) :
rmin = ; (θ = 0 )
1+ e
ed
rmax = ; (θ = π )
1− e
∴ rmin + rmax = 2a and a = ed / 1 − e ( 2
)
1 1 + e cosθ
i.e. =
r (
a 1 − e2 )
∴ rmin = a (1 − e) , rmax = a (1 + e)
■ This is the Kepler's first law : the planets move in
elliptical orbits around the sun as a focus. When
e42= 0, r = a ⇒ circle.
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■ Then the period τ for the elliptical orbit :
A 2( πab ) 2πa 3/ 2
τ=  = =
A h R g

■ where b = a 1 − e 2 is the semiminor axis,

h2=GmOa(1-e2) and GmO=gR2.

■ This is the Kepler's third law : the square of

the period of motion is proportional to the
cube of the semimajor axis.

43
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Case 2 : parabola (e = 1)
1 1
■ (F) becomes : = (1 + cosθ )
r d
as θ →π , r → ∞
Case 3 : hyperbola
■ r → ∞ as θ =(e
θ >and
1) θ 1 = -θ 1

■ where

1
cosθ1 = −
e

θ1
mo
hyperbola
44
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The total energy of the mass m :
E = m ( r + r θ ) −
2
1 2 2 2 mgR
2 r
■ To evaluate E, we use the property of the perigee that
■ Then we get θ = 0 , r = 0

2
1 gR
=C+ 2 , r 2θ = h and h 2C = egR 2
■ r
Hence h
E < 0, ⇒ e < 1 2 (elliptical)
◆
∴ e = 1 + 2 Eh / mg R 2 4
◆ E = 0, ⇒ e = 1 (parabolic)
◆ E > 0, ⇒ e > 1 (hyperbolic)

45
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■ Since :
E=
( )
− 1 − e 2 mg 2 R 4
2
2h
■ and 1 a (1 − e )
2
=d =
C e

∴ E = − gR m / 2a
2

1 2
■ Also E = mv − mgR / r
2

2
2 1 1 
∴ v = 2 gR  − 
2

 r 2a 
■ velocity of m at different position can be
found by the above equation.
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Assumptions :

■ (1)The bodies have spherical mass

symmetry.

■ (2)Only gravitational force exists.

■ (3)Mass mo is fixed in space.

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 Example Find the min. velocity boost ∆ v
for the satellite to reach B. At what
B
position of the circular orbit the
3R booster should be introduced?
2R
R
The min. velocity boost ∆ v is
obtained when the point B is at the
apogee of an elliptical orbit while
the booster point is at the opposite
The satellite moves
direction of B and becomes the
in a circular orbit of
perigee of the elliptical orbit.
radius 2R initially.

48
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 The velocity of the satellite in the circular orbit is
expressed by : (e=0 , r=a)
1 1 
 v = 2 gR  −  and a = 2 R
2 2

 r 2a 
g gR 9.8 × 6371×103
∴ vc = R = = = 5.59 ×10 m s
3

a 2 2
For an elliptical orbit with 2a=5R, the velocity at the
perigee : 2 1 1  3
vP = 2 gR 
2
−  = gR
 2 R 5R  5
3 × 9.8 × 6371×103
∴ vP = = 6.12 ×10 m s
3

∴49 ∆v = vP − vc = 5.3 ×10 2 m s #

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Example Find the magnitude of the
A  necessary launch velocity at B.
vB
R 2
B 1 1 + e cosθ
β Since =
r a (1 − e 2 )
R
θ 1 1 + e cos135o
∴ At point B : =
R a (1 − e 2 )
3R
β = 90 θ = 135
o o
Also rmax = a (1 + e) =
2
The above two equations give :
e = 0.6306 a = 0.9199 R
50
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 1 1 
Use : v = 2 gR  − 
2 2

 r 2a 

1 1 
∴ v = 2 gR  −
2
B
2

 R 2 × 0.9199 R 

∴ vB = 0.913 gR

= 0.913 × 9.8 × 6371×10 3

= 7.55 ×103 m s #
51
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